How does a parliamentary system differ from a presidential system?

In contrast to a presidential system, where the president is popularly elected and largely independent of the legislature, a parliamentary system features a head of government who is accountable to the legislature and can be removed by a majority vote. This creates a closer link between the executive and legislative branches.

What are the two main types of countries that utilize parliamentary systems?

Countries with parliamentary systems can be either constitutional monarchies, where a monarch serves as the ceremonial head of state and a prime minister from the legislature is the head of government, or parliamentary republics, where a largely ceremonial president is the head of state. In some cases, the head of government is also the head of state, having been elected by the legislature.

Where is the parliamentary system most prevalent globally?

Parliamentary democracy is the dominant form of government in the European Union and Oceania. It is also widespread throughout the former British Empire and can be found in scattered countries across Africa and Asia.

When did the concept of parliaments first emerge in Europe?

The concept of parliaments dates back to the Middle Ages in Europe. While the exact origin is debated depending on the definition of 'parliament,' early examples include the Icelandic Althing, which first convened around 930 AD.

What is considered the oldest written record of a parliament?

The oldest written record of a parliament, in the sense of an assembly distinct from the general population and convened by a king, dates back to 1188. This occurred when Alfonso IX of León, Spain, convened the Cortes of León.

Which European parliament was the first to officially gain legislative power?

The Catalan Courts are recognized as the first parliament in Europe to officially obtain the power to pass legislation, distinct from custom.

What role did Simon de Montfort play in the development of parliamentary systems?

Simon de Montfort is noted for convening two significant parliaments in England. The first, in 1258, limited the king's absolute authority, and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from towns, a step towards broader representation.

How did the Glorious Revolution influence the development of parliamentary systems?

In the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered ideas of liberal democracy, culminating in the Glorious Revolution and the passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689. These events established greater parliamentary control over the monarchy.

How did Robert Walpole become the first de facto Prime Minister of Great Britain?

King George I's inability to speak English led to him delegating the chairing of cabinet meetings to his leading minister, Robert Walpole. This practice evolved into the modern role of the Prime Minister.

What was the significance of the Great Reform Act of 1832 in the UK?

The Great Reform Act of 1832 in the United Kingdom led to parliamentary dominance, meaning that the choice of the majority in Parliament invariably determined who would become Prime Minister and the composition of the government.

What is the Westminster system, and where is it commonly found?

The Westminster system is a type of parliamentary government characterized by an executive accountable to the lower house of a bicameral parliament. It originates from the British Houses of Parliament and is prevalent in Commonwealth nations and countries influenced by British political traditions.

What are the typical characteristics of the Westminster system regarding debate and voting?

Parliaments operating under the Westminster system often exhibit an adversarial style of debate, with the plenary session of parliament being more significant than its committees. Voting systems commonly used include plurality voting (first past the post), though some use proportional representation.

What is the Consensus system of parliamentary government?

The Consensus system, often found in Western European countries, is characterized by a more consensual debating style and typically features semi-circular debating chambers. These systems tend to use proportional representation with open party lists and place greater emphasis on parliamentary committees.

How do Westminster and Consensus systems differ in ministerial appointments?

Most Westminster systems adhere to strict monism, requiring ministers to be members of parliament. In contrast, Consensus systems generally do not enforce strict monism and commonly allow for the appointment of ministers who are not members of parliament.

What are the different ways a head of government is appointed in parliamentary systems?

The appointment of a head of government varies. In some systems, the head of state appoints a prime minister likely to have majority support. In others, the prime minister must gain a vote of confidence, or parliament itself nominates and approves the candidate.

How does the appointment process in Germany's parliamentary system work?

In Germany, the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the federal president. If approved, this candidate is appointed as Chancellor. Parliament can also choose an alternative candidate who would then be appointed by the president.

What is unique about Sweden's process for appointing a Prime Minister?

In Sweden, the Speaker of Parliament nominates a candidate for Prime Minister. This candidate is elected by the parliament if an absolute majority does not vote against them, meaning they can be elected even with more 'no' votes than 'yes' votes.

What is the 'power of dissolution' in a parliamentary system?

The power of dissolution refers to the ability of the government, typically the prime minister, to dissolve parliament and call for an early election. This power varies significantly between countries, with some allowing it at will and others imposing strict conditions.

In which countries does the Prime Minister have the de facto power to call an election at will?

In countries operating under a Westminster system, such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Malaysia, Australia, and New Zealand, the prime minister generally holds the de facto power to call an election whenever they choose.

What is a 'double dissolution' in the Australian parliamentary context?

In Australia, under specific conditions, the Prime Minister can request the Governor-General to call a 'double dissolution.' This dissolves all seats in the Senate, not just half, effectively triggering a simultaneous election for the entire Parliament.

How can parliamentary systems be considered adaptable?

Parliamentary systems are often seen as adaptable because they allow for rapid changes in legislation and policy as long as there is a stable majority or coalition in parliament. This fused power system can result in a government that is powerful and capable of enacting significant change.

What is a key advantage of the UK's fused power system regarding accountability?

The UK's fused power system is noted for its accountability, as the centralized government makes it clearer where decisions originate. This contrasts with presidential systems where blame can be shifted between the executive and legislative branches, leaving the public confused.

How does the UK system provide scrutiny of ministers?

Ministers in the UK cabinet are subject to weekly Question Periods in parliament, during which their actions and policies are scrutinized by members of parliament. This provides a regular mechanism for holding the government accountable.

What did Walter Bagehot praise about parliamentary governments in 'The English Constitution'?

Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary governments for facilitating serious debates, allowing for changes in leadership without a general election, and permitting elections to be called at any time, which he contrasted with the fixed terms in presidential systems.

What is a potential drawback of the flexibility in calling elections in parliamentary systems?

The flexibility in scheduling elections can be abused, allowing a ruling party to call elections at a time when they are most likely to retain power, thus avoiding periods of unpopularity. This can potentially extend a party's rule beyond what might be feasible in a presidential system.

What is a criticism leveled against parliamentary systems regarding the separation of powers?

A criticism is that parliamentary systems can yield very powerful heads of government, sometimes more so than in presidential systems. This is due to the fusion of powers, which can allow a government with a strong majority to push through legislation and constitutional changes with fewer institutional checks.

How can parliamentary systems be subverted, according to Arturo Fontaine?

Arturo Fontaine suggests that parliamentary systems can be subverted when a party achieves a supermajority in parliament, enabling them to amend the constitution without sufficient institutional checks. This concentration of power, he argues, is facilitated by the deficient separation of powers characteristic of these systems.

What is 'legislative flip-flopping' and how can it be a disadvantage?

Legislative flip-flopping refers to the frequent changes in legislation or policy direction as the majority party or coalition in parliament shifts. This can create instability for sectors, such as the British steel industry, which experienced major instability due to policy swings between nationalization and privatization.

What is a potential disadvantage of parliamentary systems concerning political fragmentation?

While not explicitly detailed as a disadvantage in the text, the mention of accommodating diverse viewpoints in presidential systems (contrasted with parliamentary systems) might imply that parliamentary systems, especially those with proportional representation, could potentially lead to more fragmented legislatures or coalition governments that are less stable.

What is meant by 'democratic unaccountability' in some parliamentary systems?

Democratic unaccountability in parliamentary systems can arise because the head of government is indirectly elected or appointed, rather than directly chosen by the electorate. This can limit the voters' direct power to remove or install the person wielding the most executive power.

What is an anti-defection law in a parliamentary context?

An anti-defection law is legislation enacted in some parliamentary democracies, such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, that prohibits elected representatives from switching parties after an election. Violating this law typically results in the loss of their seat in parliament.

How do anti-defection laws differ between countries like India and the UK?

In countries like India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, anti-defection laws prevent legislators from crossing the floor. In contrast, members of parliament in the UK, Canada, and Australia are generally free to switch parties without losing their seats.

What is parliamentary sovereignty, and where is it notably strong?

Parliamentary sovereignty means that the legislature holds supreme legal authority and can create or end any law. This principle is particularly strong in countries like the United Kingdom and New Zealand, where there are few checks on Parliament's legislative power, and judicial review cannot annul or amend acts.

Can parliamentary sovereignty be overridden in the UK?

Yes, parliamentary sovereignty means that even laws establishing supermajorities or special procedures, like the former Fixed-term Parliaments Act, can be bypassed by a subsequent act of Parliament that amends or repeals them, as seen with the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019.

What is the Parliamentary Powers Index?

The Parliamentary Powers Index is a metric used to quantitatively compare the strength of parliamentary systems across different countries.

What is the primary characteristic of the Westminster system regarding the executive and legislature?

The Westminster system features a fusion of powers, where the executive (government) is drawn from and accountable to the legislature, typically the lower house of parliament.

In which regions is the parliamentary system most dominant?

The parliamentary system is the dominant form of government in the European Union and Oceania, and is also prevalent in countries with historical ties to the British Empire.

What is the role of the head of state in appointing the head of government in many parliamentary systems?

In many parliamentary systems, particularly those following the Westminster model, the head of state (monarch or president) formally appoints the prime minister, usually based on the leader of the party or coalition commanding a majority in the legislature.

What is the significance of a 'vote of confidence' in a parliamentary system?

A vote of confidence is crucial in parliamentary systems as it determines whether the government maintains the support of the legislature. If a government loses a vote of confidence, it typically must resign or call for a new election.

How does the appointment of the Prime Minister in Japan differ from that in the UK?

In Japan, the National Diet nominates the Prime Minister, who is then appointed by the Emperor. In the UK, the Prime Minister is appointed by the monarch, typically being the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Commons.

What is the 'constructive vote of no confidence' mentioned in relation to Armenia?

The constructive vote of no confidence, as mentioned for Armenia, is a mechanism where the parliament can dismiss the government only if it simultaneously elects a successor. This prevents a power vacuum and ensures continuity of government.

What is the typical relationship between the legislature and the executive in the parliamentary systems of African countries listed?

In the listed African parliamentary systems (Botswana, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Mauritius, Somalia, South Africa, Togo), the legislature generally elects or approves the president or prime minister, who then forms the cabinet. The legislature's support is fundamental to the executive's formation and continuation.

How is the head of government appointed in Canada and Australia?

In Canada and Australia, the Governor-General appoints the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the political party commanding a majority in the House of Commons (Canada) or the House of Representatives (Australia). The Governor-General then appoints the Cabinet on the Prime Minister's advice.

What is the role of the President in the parliamentary system of the Czech Republic?

In the Czech Republic, the President appoints the Prime Minister, usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Chamber of Deputies. However, the appointed Prime Minister must then secure a vote of confidence from the Chamber of Deputies.

How does Finland's parliamentary system differ regarding the appointment of the cabinet?

In Finland, the Parliament of Finland directly appoints the Cabinet of Finland, rather than the President appointing a Prime Minister who then forms the cabinet. This highlights a variation in the direct link between the legislature and the executive.

What is the process for forming a government in Portugal?

In Portugal, after elections or a government resignation, the President consults with parliamentary parties and invites a candidate, usually the leader of the largest party, to form a government. The President then swears in the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.

What is the unique feature of Norway's parliamentary system regarding election terms?

Norway is unique in that its parliament, the Storting, always serves its full four-year term. Unlike many other parliamentary systems, snap elections cannot be called by the government.

How does the appointment of the Prime Minister in Italy work?

In Italy, the President of Italy appoints the Prime Minister, but the government must subsequently gain and maintain the confidence of the Italian Parliament. This means the parliament has the power to remove the cabinet through a vote of no confidence.

What is the relationship between the legislature and the executive in the United Kingdom's parliamentary system?

In the United Kingdom, the leader of the political party that commands the confidence of a majority in the House of Commons is appointed Prime Minister by the monarch. The Prime Minister then nominates members of the Cabinet.

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What is a Parliamentary System?

Executive-Legislative Fusion

A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government—the chief executive—derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support of a majority of the legislature. This executive is held accountable to the legislature, creating a fusion of powers rather than a strict separation. Typically, this head of government is distinct from a ceremonial head of state, although some systems feature an executive head of state elected by the legislature.

Contrast with Presidential Systems

Unlike presidential systems, where the president is popularly elected and largely independent of the legislature, parliamentary systems feature an executive that is directly accountable to the legislative body. The legislature can typically remove the head of government through a vote of no confidence, a mechanism absent in presidential structures. This interdependence shapes the dynamics of governance and policy-making.

Global Prevalence

Parliamentary democracy represents the dominant form of government in regions such as the European Union, Oceania, and across the historical expanse of the British Empire. Its influence extends throughout Africa and Asia, with variations also appearing in local governance structures, such as council-manager systems in the United States. This widespread adoption underscores its adaptability and perceived effectiveness in various political contexts.

Historical Evolution

Ancient Roots and Medieval Developments

The origins of parliamentary systems trace back to medieval Europe. Early assemblies, such as Iceland's Althing around 930 AD, represent nascent forms of representative governance. The first documented parliament, convened by Alfonso IX of León in 1188, marked a significant step towards assemblies separate from the populace, directly interacting with the monarch. The Catalan Courts later became recognized as Europe's first legislative body.

The Westminster Model's Rise

Key developments occurred in England, notably with Simon de Montfort's parliaments in the 13th century, which began to limit royal authority. The Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights 1689 further cemented parliamentary power. The gradual shift of executive authority to ministers, exemplified by Robert Walpole's role in the 18th century, and reforms like the Great Reform Act 1832, solidified parliamentary dominance, establishing the foundation for the Westminster system.

Post-War Expansion and Modernization

Following World War I, parliamentary democracy saw increased adoption in Europe, sometimes imposed by victorious powers. After World War II, defeated Axis powers occupied by Allied democracies implemented parliamentary constitutions, including Germany and Japan. This period also saw the strengthening of parliamentary principles in existing democracies, with many former British dominions adopting and adapting the Westminster model, solidifying the concept of responsible government.

Key Characteristics

Bicameralism vs. Unicameralism

Parliamentary systems can operate with either a bicameral legislature (two chambers) or a unicameral legislature (one chamber). Bicameral systems typically feature a directly elected lower house responsible for forming the executive, and an upper house with varying degrees of power, often appointed or elected through a different mechanism. This structure influences legislative debate and the balance of power.

Debate Style and Institutional Focus

Parliamentary systems are often categorized by their debate style and the relative importance of plenary sessions versus committees. Westminster systems tend towards adversarial debate with a strong emphasis on plenary sessions, while Consensus systems, common in Western Europe, favor more consensual debate and place greater importance on parliamentary committees. These differences reflect distinct approaches to legislative deliberation and consensus-building.

Fiscal Tendencies

Research suggests a correlation between governmental systems and fiscal policy. A meta-analysis indicates that parliamentary systems may lean towards fiscal expansion, characterized by higher spending, particularly before elections. This contrasts with presidential systems, which might favor revenue cuts. These tendencies can influence a government's approach to economic management and public finance.

Variations in Parliamentary Systems

The Westminster System

Originating from the British Parliament, the Westminster system is prevalent in Commonwealth nations and countries influenced by British political traditions. Key features include a tendency towards adversarial debate, the primacy of plenary sessions, and often the use of plurality voting systems (first-past-the-post), though proportional representation is also employed. Many Westminster systems practice strict monism, requiring ministers to be members of parliament.

Origins: British Houses of Parliament.
Debate Style: Adversarial.
Legislative Focus: Plenary sessions are paramount.
Electoral Systems: Often plurality (e.g., UK, Canada), but also PR (e.g., Ireland, New Zealand).
Ministerial Membership: Strict monism (ministers must be MPs) in many cases.

The Consensus System

Common in Western European countries, the Consensus system emphasizes cooperation and consensus-building. These systems typically feature semi-circular debating chambers and give greater importance to parliamentary committees. Proportional representation with open party lists is frequently used, and many countries allow for extra-parliamentary ministers, reflecting a different approach to executive composition and legislative process.

Origins: Western European models (e.g., Germany, Spain).
Debate Style: Consensual.
Legislative Focus: Committees are often more important than plenary sessions.
Electoral Systems: Predominantly proportional representation with open lists.
Ministerial Membership: Often allows extra-parliamentary ministers; some implement dualism (MPs must resign to become ministers).

Appointment of the Head of Government

The process by which the head of government is appointed varies significantly across parliamentary systems, reflecting different constitutional arrangements and balances of power between the executive and legislative branches.

Nomination by Head of State

In many Westminster systems, the head of state (monarch, governor-general, or president) formally appoints the prime minister. This appointment is typically based on the leader of the party or coalition commanding a majority in the legislature. Examples include Australia, Canada, India, and the United Kingdom, where the head of state acts on the advice of the prime minister to form the cabinet.

Confidence Vote Requirement

Some systems require the appointed prime minister to secure a formal vote of confidence from the parliament within a specified timeframe. This ensures that the executive's legitimacy is explicitly confirmed by the legislature. Italy and Greece exemplify this model, where parliamentary approval is a critical step following the initial appointment.

Parliamentary Nomination or Election

In other variations, the parliament itself plays a more direct role in nominating or electing the prime minister. This can involve the legislature voting on a candidate nominated by the head of state (as in Germany and Spain) or directly nominating a candidate who is then appointed (as in Japan and Ireland). Sweden's system involves the Speaker of Parliament nominating a candidate elected by the Riksdag.

Direct Election (Historical)

Historically, some systems, like Israel between 1996 and 2001, experimented with the direct popular election of the prime minister. While this approach aimed to strengthen the executive's mandate, it could also lead to semi-presidential characteristics and was eventually reformed.

Power of Dissolution and Elections

The ability to call an election is a significant power within parliamentary systems, influencing political strategy and stability. Variations exist regarding who holds this power and under what conditions.

Flexible Election Timing

In many Westminster systems, such as the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, the prime minister possesses the de facto power to call an election at a time deemed politically advantageous, provided constitutional conventions are met. This flexibility allows governments to seek a mandate when they are strong or to respond to political circumstances.

Constitutional Constraints

Conversely, some systems impose stricter conditions for calling early elections. These might include a vote of no confidence, a supermajority vote in parliament, or a prolonged legislative deadlock. Germany, for instance, requires the Bundestag to vote on a candidate nominated by the federal president, and Schröder's government deliberately lost a confidence motion to trigger an early election.

Fixed Terms and Circumvention

While fixed-term parliaments offer predictability, mechanisms often exist to circumvent them. The UK's Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 was repealed, restoring flexibility. In Australia, a "double dissolution" can be triggered under specific conditions, dissolving both houses of parliament simultaneously. Norway's Storting, uniquely, always serves its full four-year term.

Advantages of Parliamentary Systems

Adaptability and Responsiveness

Parliamentary systems are often lauded for their adaptability. A stable majority or coalition can facilitate rapid legislative change and policy implementation. This fused power structure allows governments to respond swiftly to evolving circumstances, providing a dynamic approach to governance, as seen in the UK's ability to nationalize industries during wartime.

Enhanced Scrutiny and Accountability

The close relationship between the executive and legislature fosters greater transparency and accountability. Ministers are subject to regular scrutiny, such as weekly Question Periods in the UK, making it clearer who is responsible for policy decisions. This contrasts with presidential systems where blame can be diffused between branches.

Reduced Corruption

Studies, including a World Bank report, suggest that parliamentary systems are associated with lower levels of corruption. This may be attributed to the direct accountability mechanisms and the integrated nature of governance, which can promote greater oversight and adherence to the rule of law.

Disadvantages of Parliamentary Systems

Concentration of Power

The fusion of powers can lead to a concentration of authority in the head of government, particularly when a single party holds a significant majority. This can potentially enable the subversion of democratic norms, as argued in analyses of Hungary's political landscape, where constitutional amendments were facilitated by a supermajority, highlighting the need for robust checks and balances.

Legislative Instability

The ease with which governments can change or call elections can also lead to legislative "flip-flopping." Policy directions may shift dramatically with changes in parliamentary majorities, creating instability for sectors reliant on consistent government policy, as observed in the historical debates over the British steel industry.

Democratic Unaccountability

A potential drawback is the indirect election of the head of government. Voters may not directly choose the prime minister, and strategic voting can be necessary to influence outcomes. In coalition governments or systems with strong party discipline, voters may find it difficult to dislodge the ruling parties, even if their preferred candidates do not achieve majority support.

Global Parliamentary Systems

Parliamentary systems are implemented across diverse nations, each with unique constitutional frameworks governing the relationship between the legislature and the executive.

Africa

Country	Connection between the legislature and the executive
Botswana	Parliament of Botswana elects the President who appoints the Cabinet.
Ethiopia	Federal Parliamentary Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers.
Lesotho	National Assembly of Lesotho determines the Prime Minister of Lesotho.
Mauritius	National Assembly appoints the Cabinet of Mauritius.
Somalia	Federal Parliament of Somalia elects the President who appoints the Prime Minister.
South Africa	Parliament of South Africa elects the President who appoints the Cabinet.
Togo	National Assembly elects the President who appoints the Prime Minister.

Americas

Country	Connection between the legislature and the executive
Antigua and Barbuda	House of Representatives appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
The Bahamas	House of Assembly appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Barbados	House of Assembly appoints the President (head of state) who appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Belize	House of Representatives appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Canada	House of Commons appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Dominica	Parliament approves the Cabinet.
Grenada	House of Representatives appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Jamaica	House of Representatives appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Saint Kitts and Nevis	National Assembly appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Saint Lucia	House of Assembly appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	House of Assembly appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Suriname	National Assembly elects the President who appoints the Cabinet.
Trinidad and Tobago	House of Representatives appoints the President who appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.

Asia

Country	Connection between the legislature and the executive
Armenia	National Assembly appoints the Government, which can be dismissed by a constructive vote of no confidence.
Bangladesh	Jatiya Sangsad approves the Cabinet.
Bhutan	Parliament approves the Lhengye Zhungtshog.
Cambodia	Parliament approves the Council of Ministers.
Republic of China (Taiwan)	Legislative Yuan approves the Executive Yuan; President appoints Premier with Legislative Yuan's consent.
Georgia	Parliament approves the Prime Minister nominated by a party with election majority.
India	President appoints the leader of the majority party/alliance in Lok Sabha as Prime Minister.
Iraq	Council of Representatives approves the Cabinet.
Israel	President mandates a party leader to form a government, confirmed by Knesset.
Japan	National Diet nominates the Prime Minister, who appoints the Cabinet.
Kuwait	National Assembly approves Crown Prince who appoints Prime Minister; Parliament approves Cabinet.
Laos	National Assembly elects President who nominates Prime Minister.
Lebanon	President (elected by Parliament) appoints Prime Minister (Sunni Muslim) and Cabinet, approved by Parliament.
Malaysia	Dewan Rakyat appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Myanmar	Assembly elects President who forms Cabinet (currently under military rule).
Nepal	Parliament elects the Prime Minister who appoints the Cabinet.
Pakistan	Parliament elects the Prime Minister with majority support in the National Assembly.
Singapore	Parliament appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Thailand	Monarch appoints Prime Minister nominated by the House of Representatives.
Vietnam	National Assembly elects President and Prime Minister who forms the Cabinet.

Europe

Country	Connection between the legislature and the executive
Albania	President nominates a candidate chosen by the majority party in Parliament; Parliament approves the Cabinet.
Andorra
Austria
Belgium	Federal Parliament approves the Cabinet.
Bulgaria	National Assembly appoints the Council of Ministers.
Croatia	Parliament approves the President of Government and Cabinet nominated by them.
Czech Republic	President appoints Prime Minister, who must gain a vote of confidence from the Chamber of Deputies.
Denmark	Monarch appoints a Cabinet leader likely to gain majority support in the Folketing.
Estonia	Riigikogu elects Prime Minister candidate nominated by the President; Government appointed by President.
Finland	Parliament appoints the Cabinet.
Germany	Bundestag elects the Federal Chancellor nominated by the President.
Greece	Hellenic Parliament approves the Cabinet of Greece.
Hungary	National Assembly approves the Cabinet of Hungary.
Iceland	President appoints the Cabinet.
Ireland	Dáil Éireann nominates the Taoiseach, appointed by the President.
Italy	Italian Parliament grants confidence in the Cabinet appointed by the President.
Kosovo	Assembly of Kosovo appoints the Government of Kosovo.
Latvia	Saeima appoints the Cabinet of Ministers.
Luxembourg	Chamber of Deputies appoints the Cabinet.
Malta	House of Representatives appoints the Cabinet.
Moldova	Parliament appoints the Cabinet.
Montenegro	Parliament appoints the Government.
Netherlands	Second Chamber can dismiss the Cabinet through a motion of no confidence.
North Macedonia	Assembly approves the Government.
Norway	Monarch appoints Prime Minister leading the largest party/coalition in Stortinget.
Poland
Portugal	President invites someone to form a government after elections or resignation, usually the leader of the biggest party.
San Marino
Serbia	National Assembly appoints the Government.
Slovakia	National Council approves the Government.
Slovenia	National Assembly appoints the Government.
Spain	Congress of Deputies elects the President of the Government.
Sweden	Riksdag elects the Prime Minister, who appoints the Government.
United Kingdom	Leader commanding confidence of House of Commons is appointed Prime Minister by the Sovereign.

Oceania

Country	Connection between the legislature and the executive
Australia	House of Representatives appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
New Zealand	House of Representatives appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Papua New Guinea	National Parliament appoints the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Samoa	Legislative Assembly appoints the Cabinet.
Vanuatu	Parliament appoints the Cabinet.

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The Architecture of Governance

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What is a Parliamentary System? 🏛️

🤝 Executive-Legislative Fusion

⚖️ Contrast with Presidential Systems

🌐 Global Prevalence

Historical Evolution 📜

🌍 Ancient Roots and Medieval Developments

🇬🇧 The Westminster Model's Rise

🕊️ Post-War Expansion and Modernization

Key Characteristics ⚙️

⚖️ Bicameralism vs. Unicameralism

🗣️ Debate Style and Institutional Focus

📊 Fiscal Tendencies

Variations in Parliamentary Systems 🗺️

🇬🇧 The Westminster System

🇩🇪 The Consensus System

Appointment of the Head of Government 👑

📜 Nomination by Head of State

✅ Confidence Vote Requirement

🗳️ Parliamentary Nomination or Election

👤 Direct Election (Historical)

Power of Dissolution and Elections 📅

⚡ Flexible Election Timing

⚖️ Constitutional Constraints

🔄 Fixed Terms and Circumvention

Advantages of Parliamentary Systems 👍

🤸 Adaptability and Responsiveness

🔍 Enhanced Scrutiny and Accountability

📉 Reduced Corruption

Disadvantages of Parliamentary Systems 👎

💪 Concentration of Power

🎢 Legislative Instability

❓ Democratic Unaccountability

Global Parliamentary Systems 🌍

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is a Parliamentary System?

Executive-Legislative Fusion

Contrast with Presidential Systems

Global Prevalence

Historical Evolution

Ancient Roots and Medieval Developments

The Westminster Model's Rise

Post-War Expansion and Modernization

Key Characteristics

Bicameralism vs. Unicameralism

Debate Style and Institutional Focus

Fiscal Tendencies

Variations in Parliamentary Systems

The Westminster System

The Consensus System

Appointment of the Head of Government

Nomination by Head of State

Confidence Vote Requirement

Parliamentary Nomination or Election

Direct Election (Historical)

Power of Dissolution and Elections

Flexible Election Timing

Constitutional Constraints

Fixed Terms and Circumvention

Advantages of Parliamentary Systems

Adaptability and Responsiveness

Enhanced Scrutiny and Accountability

Reduced Corruption

Disadvantages of Parliamentary Systems

Concentration of Power

Legislative Instability

Democratic Unaccountability

Global Parliamentary Systems

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice