Shadow Armies
An academic exploration into the history, operations, and ethical complexities of private military and security contractors.
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What are PMCs?
Defining Private Military Companies
A Private Military Company (PMC) or Private Military and Security Company (PMSC) is a private entity that offers armed combat and/or security services. Their personnel are typically referred to as "security contractors" or "private military contractors." These companies provide services and expertise akin to governmental security, military, or police forces, though often on a more localized or specialized scale.
Scope of Services
PMCs frequently train or augment official armed forces for governments. Beyond state contracts, they are also employed by private corporations to provide close protection for key staff or to secure company premises, particularly in high-risk environments. Examples of their diverse missions include military aviation repair in East Africa, close protection for figures like Afghan President Hamid Karzai, and piloting reconnaissance aircraft for initiatives such as Plan Colombia.
Legal Ambiguities and Economic Impact
A critical distinction arises when contractors engage armed force in a war zone, as they may be considered unlawful combatants under the Geneva Conventions and the 2006 American Military Commissions Act. Economically, the industry is substantial; a 2003 study estimated its annual earnings at over $100 billion. Furthermore, a 2008 study by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence revealed that private contractors constituted 29% of the workforce in the United States Intelligence Community, accounting for 49% of their personnel budgets.
Historical Evolution
Cold War Origins
Modern PMCs trace their lineage to 1965, when ex-Special Air Service (SAS) veterans, led by SAS founder David Stirling and John Woodhouse, established WatchGuard International. This private company offered security and military services, initially reporting on royalist forces in Yemen and later providing training and security advice in Zambia and Sierra Leone. Stirling also facilitated weapon sales and military personnel deployment for various privatized foreign policy operations, primarily with Gulf States. The company was also implicated in a failed attempt to overthrow Muammar Gaddafi in Libya in 1971. Other firms like KAS International, Control Risks Group, and Defence Systems emerged from ex-SAS servicemen in the 1970s and '80s, offering military consultation and training.
Post-Cold War Expansion
The end of the Cold War marked a dramatic surge in the PMC industry. The demobilization of over 6 million military personnel from Western armed forces in the 1990s created a vast recruitment pool. Prominent companies of this era included Vinnell and Military Professional Resources Inc. (MPRI) in the US, G4S and Keeni-Meeny Services in the UK, and Executive Outcomes in South Africa. This period saw a notable exodus from elite special operations forces globally, including the British SAS, US Special Operations Forces, and Canadian Joint Task Force 2, drawn by lucrative private sector opportunities.
US Engagement and Notoriety
Since 1994, the US Department of Defense has awarded 3,601 contracts worth $300 billion to twelve US-based PMCs, notably during the Hurricane Katrina response. Domestic operations often fall under agencies like the Department of Energy or Homeland Security. A pivotal moment for maritime PMCs was the October 2000 USS Cole bombing, leading to Blackwater's first contract with the US military. Blackwater, and PMCs generally, gained significant public attention and notoriety during the American occupation of Iraq in the 21st century.
Global Operations
Afghanistan Engagements
In December 2009, the Congressional Research Service reported that a surge of 30,000 US troops in Afghanistan could be accompanied by 26,000 to 56,000 contractors, potentially increasing the total US private sector presence to 130,000-160,000 personnel. In December 2008, contractors constituted 69% of the Pentagon's personnel in Afghanistan, marking the highest recorded percentage in any US conflict. Concurrently, a US House of Representatives subcommittee initiated an investigation into allegations that private security companies protecting Defense Department convoys were paying warlords and the Taliban for safe passage, inadvertently funding insurgents.
Seaborne Security
Since the late 2000s, PMCs have played an increasing role in anti-piracy efforts, particularly off the coast of Somalia. They primarily provide security for private shipping through the Gulf of Aden, deterring attacks and hostage-taking. Despite the presence of international naval missions like the EU's Atalanta and NATO's Ocean Shield, shipping companies often rely on onboard security personnel. The decentralized nature of PMCs makes international oversight challenging; while national navies reported over 1,200 detained pirates between 2010 and 2015, only one PMC published similar data, suggesting a potentially much higher level of engagement by private actors.
Airborne Capabilities
By April 2005, companies like SCG International Risk expanded their services beyond traditional protection and intelligence to include military aviation support. SCG International Air offered air support, medical evacuation (medevac), rotary and fixed-wing transportation, heavy-lift cargo, armed escort, and executive air travel globally. This expansion demonstrated PMCs' growing capacity to rival the air force capabilities of some nations.
African Interventions
Africa has seen significant PMC activity. Executive Outcomes engaged in military actions in Angola (against UNITA) and Sierra Leone (against the Revolutionary United Front) in 1994-1995, providing training and combat support. In 2000, a report highlighted the role of mercenaries, including pilot Neall Ellis and his Mi-24 Hind gunship, in supporting UN and British operations in Sierra Leone. More recently, STTEP International was credited with decisive support to the Nigerian military against Boko Haram in 2015. The Russian Wagner Group has operated in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Mozambique since 2017, accused of human rights violations. The African Wildlife Defence Force also contracts former servicemen as Private Ranger Contractors to protect national parks.
Russian and Chinese Ventures
Despite constitutional prohibitions on armed units and mercenary recruitment, Russian PMCs have been active since at least 2011, driven by investments in regions like Syria and Libya. Companies like Moran Security Group, Slavonic Corps, and later the Wagner Group, have been deployed in conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War and the War in Donbas. The Wagner Group, for instance, reportedly received payment from captured oil and gas infrastructure in Syria. In 2023, Gazprom was reported to be forming its own PMC, Fakel. Investigations suggest many Russian PMCs are connected to and funded by the Kremlin, operating in 34 countries, with significant involvement in oil and mining in 19 African nations.
Chinese state-owned firms have also engaged PMCs. Hong Kong-incorporated Frontier Services Group (FSG), linked to Erik Prince, has provided security, logistics, and aviation for Chinese companies involved in the Belt and Road Initiative across Asia, Africa, and Europe since 2014. FSG has also established subsidiaries for mineral and timber extraction in the Democratic Republic of Congo and signed a deal to establish a training base in Kashgar, Xinjiang.
Latin American Operations
In 2006, a US congressional report detailed numerous PMCs and other enterprises contracted for anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp was among those contracted by the US State Department, while others secured contracts with the Defense Department. Additionally, companies from various countries, including Israel, have contracted with the Colombian Defense Ministry for security or military activities.
Controversies & Incidents
Iraq: A Hotbed of Incidents
Iraq became a focal point for PMC controversies. By December 2006, over 100,000 contractors were working for the US Department of Defense, a tenfold increase since the Persian Gulf War. Accountability was a major concern, as Iraqi laws did not apply to contractors. In 2005, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld justified their use as cost-effective but confirmed they were not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). L. Paul Bremer's "Order 17" granted US government-associated personnel immunity from Iraqi law, a situation that persisted until a 2007 UCMJ amendment allowed prosecution of military contractors in declared wars or contingency operations.
Notable Defective Occurrences
- Abu Ghraib Scandal (2003-2004): Employees from CACI and Titan Corp. were implicated in 36% of the proven incidents at Abu Ghraib prison, with 6 identified as culpable, yet none faced prosecution unlike US military personnel.
- Fallujah Ambush (2004): Four Blackwater USA contractors were killed, mutilated, and hung on a bridge by insurgents in Fallujah, marking a highly violent attack.
- Zapata Engineering Detention (2005): 16 American contractors and three Iraqi aides were detained by US Marines after allegedly firing upon a checkpoint, leading to complaints of mistreatment.
- Colonel Westhusing's Suicide (2005): Colonel Theodore S. Westhusing committed suicide after investigating and exonerating US Investigations Services from fraud allegations.
- "Trophy" Video (2005): A video allegedly showing Aegis Defence Services contractors shooting Iraqi civilians in Baghdad sparked investigations. The US Army found no "probable cause that a crime was committed."
- Nisour Square Massacre (2007): The Iraqi government revoked Blackwater USA's license after its involvement in the deaths of seventeen Iraqis. Four Blackwater employees were later convicted in US federal court for murder and manslaughter.
- Sallyport Global Allegations (2017): Two investigators were fired from Sallyport Global after alleging sex trafficking, alcohol smuggling, and security lapses by employees at Balad Air Base in Iraq.
Balkans Misconduct
In 1999, an incident involving DynCorp in Bosnia and Herzegovina led to a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) lawsuit. The lawsuit alleged that DynCorp employees and supervisors were involved in "perverse, illegal and inhumane behavior," including the illegal purchase of women, weapons, and forged passports, alongside other immoral acts.
Regulation & Oversight
International Frameworks
The **United Nations Mercenary Convention**, initiated in 1989 and entering into force in 2001, bans the use of mercenaries. As of August 2021, 37 states had ratified it. In 2008, the **Montreux Document on Private Military and Security Companies** was developed by the International Committee of the Red Cross, the Swiss government, and industry/NGO contributors. This document outlines international legal obligations and specific recommendations for PSC services, procurement, and operational oversight during armed conflicts. By December 2018, fifty-four states had signed it.
Industry Standards
The **ISO/PAS 28007:2012 Guidelines for Private Maritime Security Companies** were published in 2012, providing specific standards for maritime security. The **ASIS Commission on Standards**, part of the American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS), is an ANSI-accredited Standards Developing Organization. With funding from the US Department of Defense, ASIS is developing four sets of standards for private security companies, aiming to increase effectiveness and productivity through educational programs and materials.
Use and Challenges
NGOs frequently employ private security contractors in dangerous regions like Afghanistan, Somalia, and Sudan, often due to a lack of internal expertise, time, or to outsource liability. However, this practice is sensitive. Outsourcing can make NGOs reliant on contractors, hinder their own security development, and compromise their perceived neutrality, potentially increasing risk. Concerns also exist regarding cost-effectiveness, with middlemen sometimes leading to poorly paid and trained personnel. Many NGOs are not transparent about their use of private security providers (PSPs), hindering knowledge sharing and debate, though exceptions like the Afghanistan NGO Security Office exist.
Casualties & Impact
Contractor Fatalities
By the end of 2012, the cumulative number of contractors who had died in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Kuwait reached 3,000. These contractor deaths represent a significant portion of total battlefield losses, accounting for nearly 30% of US battlefield casualties since the onset of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. This raises questions about "casualty sensitivity"โthe public's inverse relationship between military deaths and support for sustained military engagementsโwhen contractor fatalities are considered alongside uniformed military personnel losses.
UN Report on Mercenary Activities
In October 2007, a two-year United Nations study concluded that private contractors, despite being hired as "security guards," were performing military duties. A spokesman for the American mission to the UN office in Geneva refuted accusations that US government-contracted security guards were mercenaries. Observers have noted the inherent difficulty in distinguishing private from public troops, which complicates legal proceedings against these violent non-state actors. The legitimacy of contracted combatants often derives from the state that employs them, highlighting the complex legal and ethical landscape.
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References
References
- The SAS: Savage Wars of Peace: 1947 to the Present, by Anthony Kemp, John Murray, 1994, pp. 88-89
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