What is the Religious Society of Friends commonly known as, and what is its origin?

The Religious Society of Friends is commonly known as Quakers. It originated as a historically Protestant Christian movement in mid-17th century England, breaking away from the established Church of England.

Why did early followers of George Fox come to be called "Quakers"?

The name "Quaker" was given by others because the movement's founder, George Fox, told a judge to "quake before the authority of God." This phrase likely alluded to biblical passages about trembling before the Lord, and while initially a derogatory term, it was eventually adopted by some within the movement.

What is the central belief that generally unites Quakers?

Quakers are generally united by a belief in the "inward light," which posits that each person can be directly guided by God's spirit. This belief supports their understanding of the priesthood of all believers, emphasizing direct spiritual experience and personal revelation.

What was the global distribution of adult Quakers in 2017?

In 2017, there were approximately 377,557 adult Quakers worldwide. The largest concentration was in Africa, with 49% of the total, followed by North America with 22%.

What historical context in England contributed to the rise of Quakerism?

Quakerism emerged from a history of religious strife in England, particularly during and after the English Civil War. This period saw the rise of various dissenting Protestant groups, including the Seekers, from which Quakerism drew some of its early adherents.

What was George Fox's pivotal spiritual experience that influenced his teachings?

In 1647, while in Mansfield, George Fox claimed to receive a revelation that "there is one, even Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition." This experience convinced him of the possibility of direct, personal communion with Christ without the mediation of clergy.

What legislation led to the persecution of Quakers in England and Wales?

Quakers faced persecution under the Quaker Act of 1662 and the Conventicle Act of 1664. These laws targeted dissenting religious groups, leading to the suppression of Quaker meetings and practices.

What was the peak membership of Quakers in England and Wales by 1680?

By 1680, the number of Quakers in England and Wales had reached a peak of approximately 60,000, representing about 1.15% of the population.

What was the initial reception of Quaker missionaries in the Massachusetts Bay Colony?

Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, arriving in Boston in 1656, were met with harsh reception. They were imprisoned, banished, and had their books burned by the colony, which considered their belief in the Inward Light heretical.

Who was Mary Dyer, and what was her fate in the Massachusetts Bay Colony?

Mary Dyer was an English Quaker missionary who was hanged on Boston Common on June 1, 1660, for defying a Puritan law banning Quakers. She became one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs.

Which North American colonies were known for tolerating Quakers in the 17th century?

The colonies that tolerated Quakers in the 17th century included West Jersey, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania. In these regions, Quakers were able to establish communities and, in some cases, hold political power.

What significant role did William Penn play in the Quaker migration to North America?

William Penn, an affluent Quaker, founded the Province of Pennsylvania in 1682 and West Jersey in 1676. Pennsylvania was established as a commonwealth governed under Quaker principles, including signing peace treaties with Native American tribes.

How did the Hicksite–Orthodox split arise among Quakers in the 19th century?

The Hicksite–Orthodox split arose from ideological and socioeconomic tensions, with Hicksites often viewing the market economy as corrupting and Orthodox Quakers seeking to align with mainstream Protestant orthodoxy. This led to parallel Yearly Meetings and a division within the Society.

What was the significance of the Richmond Declaration of Faith in 1887?

The Richmond Declaration of Faith, proposed by Joseph Bevan Braithwaite, served as a statement of belief intended to counter "unsound and dangerous doctrine." It was widely used by Orthodox Friends and adopted by many of their yearly meetings, though not universally accepted.

When did British Friends begin missionary activity overseas, and where were the first missionaries sent?

British Friends began overseas missionary work in 1866, sending their first missionaries to Benares (Varanasi), India. This initiative led to the formation of the Friends Foreign Mission Association in 1868.

How did many Quakers in 19th-century Britain react to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution?

Many Quakers in 19th-century Britain, particularly older evangelical Friends, opposed Darwin's theory of evolution, finding it incompatible with their creationist beliefs. Younger Friends, however, like John Wilhelm Rowntree and Edward Grubb, supported the theories, using the doctrine of progressive revelation.

What was the "Quaker Renaissance" movement, and what were its key ideas?

The Quaker Renaissance was a movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries within London Yearly Meeting, characterized by a shift from evangelicalism towards liberal Christianity. Key ideas promoted included the theory of evolution, modern biblical criticism, and the social gospel, emphasizing good works.

What was the Friends Ambulance Unit (FAU), and what was its wartime aim?

The Friends Ambulance Unit (FAU) was a volunteer service formed by British Quakers during World War I and II. Its aim was "co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old," reflecting their pacifist commitment.

What is the Quaker "Peace Testimony"?

The Peace Testimony is a fundamental Quaker belief and practice that involves opposition to war and a commitment to nonviolence. It stems from their interpretation of Christ's teachings and their belief in the inherent worth and equality of all people.

What is the general theological stance of Conservative Friends (Wilburites)?

Conservative Friends, also known as Wilburites, generally hold beliefs that they consider closest to original Quaker doctrine. They place trust in the immediate guidance of God, reject religious symbolism and outward sacraments, and believe all of life is sacred.

What are the core beliefs of Evangelical Friends?

Evangelical Friends regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Savior, sharing similar beliefs with other evangelical Christians. They hold to penal substitution, biblical infallibility, and the necessity of a personal relationship with God, viewing the Bible as God's infallible Word.

What characterizes Liberal Quakerism, and who were its key originators?

Liberal Quakerism draws ideas from liberal Christianity, often focusing on critical biblical hermeneutics and the social gospel. Key originators of this movement include Rufus Jones and John Wilhelm Rowntree, who popularized concepts like "that of God in everyone."

What is the Quaker practice known as the "plain calendar"?

The plain calendar is a Quaker tradition of referencing months and days of the week numerically, avoiding names derived from pagan deities. For example, Sunday is "First Day" and Saturday is "Seventh Day," reflecting biblical usage.

Why do many Quakers traditionally eschew religious festivals like Christmas and Easter?

Many Quakers traditionally eschew religious festivals like Christmas and Easter, believing that Christ's birth, crucifixion, and resurrection should be marked every day. This practice, known as the "testimony against times and seasons," reflects a commitment to living a simple lifestyle year-round rather than observing specific holy days.

What are the two main types of Quaker worship practiced worldwide?

The two main types of Quaker worship are programmed worship and unprogrammed worship (also known as waiting worship or silent worship). Programmed worship is more common globally, particularly in Africa and parts of Asia and the US, while unprogrammed worship is prevalent in Britain, Europe, Australia, and other regions.

What is the defining characteristic of unprogrammed Quaker worship?

Unprogrammed worship is characterized by periods of silence, where participants wait expectantly upon God for spiritual guidance. Vocal ministry may arise spontaneously from anyone feeling led by the Spirit, followed by reflection in silence.

How is governance and decision-making conducted within the Religious Society of Friends?

Governance and decision-making occur during special meetings for worship, often called "meetings for worship with a concern for business." These are considered acts of worship where members wait upon the Lord to discern God's will, rather than voting or debating in a conventional sense.

What is the Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC), and how is it organized?

The FWCC is the international Quaker organization that loosely unifies diverse Quaker traditions. It is divided into four sections representing different global regions: Africa, Asia West Pacific, Europe and Middle East, and the Americas.

How does membership typically begin within a local Quaker meeting?

Membership typically begins in a local monthly meeting, with the means of acquiring it varying. In some Kenyan yearly meetings, attenders must complete adult education and memorize Bible passages. In Britain Yearly Meeting, membership is acquired through a peer review process where potential members are visited and their suitability is reported to the meeting.

Do all Quaker traditions practice water baptism as an initiation rite?

No, not all Quaker traditions practice water baptism. While some Evangelical Friends Churches in Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of the US may offer adult baptism by immersion, Liberal, Conservative, and Pastoral Friends Churches generally do not practice water baptism or other initiation ceremonies for new members or infants.

How are traditional Quaker memorial services conducted?

Traditional Quaker memorial services, known as memorial meetings, are held as a form of worship. Friends gather for worship, offer remembrances of the deceased, and may not have the coffin or ashes present. These meetings can occur weeks after the death to allow wider attendance and focus on celebrating life.

How do Quaker views on same-sex marriage vary?

Views on same-sex marriage vary among Friends. Some liberal and progressive meetings support and recognize same-sex marriages, while some Evangelical and Pastoral yearly meetings have publicly stated that homosexuality is a sin.

What is the significance of the Quaker star symbol?

The Quaker star is used by many Quaker service organizations, such as the American Friends Service Committee and Quaker Peace and Social Witness. It was originally used by British Quakers during the Franco-Prussian War to distinguish their war relief efforts from the Red Cross and now symbolizes a common commitment to service.

How do Liberal Quaker meetings typically engage in the ecumenical movement?

Many Liberal Quaker meetings actively participate in the ecumenical movement, often collaborating with Mainline Protestant and liberal Christian churches. Their shared concerns for peace and social justice frequently bring them together with other Christian groups, with some Yearly Meetings being members of pan-Christian organizations like the National Council of Churches or the World Council of Churches.

What was Voltaire's observation about Quakers in his "Letters on the English"?

Voltaire's "Letters on the English" (1733) included observations on the spirit of commerce and religious diversity in Great Britain, with the first four letters specifically focusing on the Quakers and their societal contributions.

What is the significance of "The Journal of George Fox"?

"The Journal of George Fox" is a primary source detailing the spiritual experiences and ministry of the founder of Quakerism. It provides insights into his revelations, visions, and the early development of Quaker beliefs and practices.

What are the "testimonies" of Quaker practical theology?

Quaker "testimonies" are principles and practices that Friends believe testify to God's truth, often rooted in their immediate experience of God and verified by the Bible. These can be remembered by acronyms like STEPS (simplicity, truth, equality, peace, sustainability) in the UK or SPICES (simplicity, peace, integrity, community, equality, stewardship) in the US.

What was the outcome of the Wilkinson–Story split regarding women's meetings?

The Wilkinson–Story split occurred when a portion of the Quaker community left to worship independently in protest against women's meetings. This schism, though largely resolved later, highlighted resistance from some within the community to the spiritual role of women that figures like George Fox and Margaret Fell had encouraged.

What was George Fox's approach to engaging with Jewish and Muslim readers?

George Fox wrote open letters to Jews and Muslims, encouraging them to turn to Jesus Christ for salvation. Notably, his letters to Muslims showed a sympathetic and wide-ranging use of the Qur'an, suggesting consistency with Christian scripture.

What is the theological position of Universalist Friends?

Universalist Friends affirm religious pluralism, believing that diverse paths to God, including non-Christian experiences, are as valid as Christian understandings. This perspective has influenced some attenders to identify with world faiths other than Christianity, such as Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and Paganism.

What is the approximate percentage of non-theistic, agnostic, or atheist Quakers within the Britain Yearly Meeting, according to one study?

According to one study of Friends in the Britain Yearly Meeting, approximately 30% of Quakers held views described as non-theistic, agnostic, or atheist. This indicates a significant segment of the membership holds non-traditional theistic beliefs.

What was the significance of the peace treaty signed by William Penn with Tamanend?

The peace treaty signed by William Penn with Tamanend, leader of the Delaware tribe, established a period of nearly a century of peace between Quakers and Native Americans in Pennsylvania, which was only broken by the Penn's Creek Massacre in 1755.

What contributions are attributed to Quakers in the early development of the United States, according to David Yount?

According to author David Yount, Quakers introduced many ideas that became mainstream in America, such as democracy in the Pennsylvania legislature, the Bill of Rights to the U.S. Constitution (influenced by Rhode Island Quakers), trial by jury, equal rights for men and women, and public education. The Liberty Bell was also cast by Quakers in Philadelphia.

What was the role of women in the Quaker community regarding "holy conversation"?

Within the Quaker community, women played significant roles in developing new conceptions of family and community, emphasizing "holy conversation." Quaker mothers were seen as crucial for nurturing piety in their children, and women were responsible for the spirituality of the wider community, organizing meetings that regulated social behavior.

What was the core theological disagreement in the Beaconite controversy?

The Beaconite controversy centered on Isaac Crewdson's argument that the "inner light" was at odds with salvation through Christ's atonement. This view led to his resignation from the Society of Friends and the departure of many fellow members.

What characterized the rise of Gurneyite Quakerism in the 19th century?

Gurneyite Quakerism, led by Joseph John Gurney, became more evangelical, influenced by the Second Great Awakening. This movement involved revival meetings, engagement with the Holiness movement, and the introduction of Quaker phrases into broader evangelical circles.

What was the "Gurneyite–Conservative" split, and who were the key figures?

The "Gurneyite–Conservative" split occurred as some Orthodox Quakers moved towards evangelicalism, which others, like John Wilbur, saw as a dilution of original Quaker doctrine. Wilbur's followers, known as Conservative Friends, emphasized the immediate guidance of God and rejected outward sacraments, while Gurneyites embraced more evangelical practices.

What was the aim of the Friends Ambulance Unit (FAU)?

The Friends Ambulance Unit (FAU) was a volunteer service formed by British Quakers during World War I and II. Its aim was "co-operating with others to build up a new world rather than fighting to destroy the old," reflecting their pacifist commitment.

How did early Quakers distance themselves from practices they considered pagan?

Early Quakers distanced themselves from pagan practices by refusing to use the traditional names for days of the week and months, as these were derived from pagan deities. They also eschewed celebrating holidays like Christmas, which they believed were rooted in pagan festivities.

What is the significance of the Quaker star symbol?

The Quaker star is used by many Quaker service organizations, such as the American Friends Service Committee and Quaker Peace and Social Witness. It was originally used by British Quakers during the Franco-Prussian War to distinguish their war relief efforts from the Red Cross and now symbolizes a common commitment to service.

How do Quakers typically conduct their governance and decision-making processes?

Quakers conduct governance and decision-making in "meetings for worship with a concern for business." These are considered acts of worship where members wait upon the Lord to discern God's will, rather than relying on voting or debate, aiming for unity in their decisions.

Quakers Wiki: The Inner Light: An Exploration of Quakerism

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Introduction to Quakerism

The Society of Friends

Quakers, formally known as the Religious Society of Friends, constitute a diverse Christian movement originating in mid-17th century England. They are characterized by a profound emphasis on direct, personal experience of God's presence, often referred to as the "Inner Light" or the "Seed of God within." This belief underpins their rejection of formal creeds and hierarchical structures, fostering a unique approach to worship and community life.

Origins of the Name

The term "Quaker" emerged from the founder, George Fox, who, when admonished by a judge to "tremble at the word of the Lord," instructed the judge to "quake before the authority of God." While initially a term of derision, it was adopted by many adherents, reflecting a spiritual trembling or deep reverence in the presence of the divine. Friends, as they prefer to be called, emphasize their connection to the biblical injunctions found in John 15:14.

Global Presence and Diversity

Today, Quakers are found worldwide, with a significant presence in Africa, North America, and other regions. The movement encompasses a broad spectrum of theological understandings, including evangelical, holiness, liberal, and even non-theist perspectives. This diversity reflects an ongoing dialogue between tradition and contemporary experience, united by a core commitment to seeking and living according to divine guidance.

Historical Roots

Beginnings in England

Emerging from the religious ferment of the English Civil War, Quakerism arose from dissenting Protestant groups like the Seekers. George Fox, dissatisfied with existing religious structures, experienced a profound revelation in 1647, believing in Christ's direct teaching to individuals. This conviction led him and others, like Margaret Fell, to travel and preach, advocating for a restored, pure form of Christianity based on immediate divine revelation and the "priesthood of all believers."

Migration to North America

Facing persecution in England and colonial America, particularly in Massachusetts Bay Colony, Quakers sought refuge and opportunities to establish communities guided by their principles. William Penn's founding of Pennsylvania in 1682, based on Quaker ideals of tolerance and fair governance, became a significant haven. Early Quaker communities in New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania fostered principles that influenced the development of American democracy and social justice movements.

Core Beliefs and Theology

The Inner Light

Central to Quaker belief is the concept of the "Inner Light," or "that of God in everyone." Friends believe that individuals can directly experience God's guidance without the need for intermediaries. This emphasis on personal revelation shapes their worship and decision-making processes, fostering a deep sense of spiritual equality and direct relationship with the divine.

Scripture and Revelation

While the Bible is highly regarded and central to the worship of many Friends, particularly within evangelical branches, the emphasis on continuing revelation means that direct experience of God's guidance is often considered paramount. Liberal Friends, for instance, may view the Bible as a source of inspiration and guidance but subordinate it to personal spiritual insight if a conflict arises.

Diversity of Thought

Quakerism is marked by a wide theological spectrum. Evangelical Friends emphasize traditional Christian doctrines, including the atonement of Christ and biblical infallibility. Holiness Friends focus on Christian perfection, while Liberal Friends often integrate critical biblical scholarship and social gospel principles. Universalist Friends embrace religious pluralism, and a minority identify as non-theist, valuing the ethical teachings and community aspects of Quakerism.

Forms of Worship

Waiting Worship (Unprogrammed)

Approximately 11% of Quakers worldwide practice "waiting worship" or "unprogrammed worship." This form emphasizes silent contemplation, allowing individuals to wait for divine inspiration. Vocal ministry, when it occurs, is typically unprepared and arises spontaneously from those present, guided by the Inner Light. This practice reflects the early Quaker tradition and is common among Liberal and Conservative Friends.

Programmed Worship

The majority of Quakers (around 89%) engage in "programmed worship," which resembles services in other Protestant denominations. These meetings often include hymns, Bible readings, prepared sermons delivered by pastors or recorded ministers, and communal prayer, alongside periods of silent reflection. This style is prevalent among Evangelical and Gurneyite Friends, particularly in Africa and parts of North America.

Testimonies: Living Faith

Core Principles

Quaker "testimonies" are practical expressions of their faith, rooted in their experience of God's guidance. While not universally categorized, common themes include: Simplicity (living modestly), Peace (opposition to war and violence), Integrity (truthfulness and honesty), Equality (belief in the equal worth of all people), Community (mutual support and care), and Stewardship (responsible care for creation).

Plain Language and Dress

Historically, Quakers were known for using "plain language," employing "thee" and "thou" in singular address and avoiding titles of respect or honorifics that implied social hierarchy. They also often practiced plain dress, reflecting a commitment to simplicity and equality. While less common today, these practices symbolized a rejection of worldly vanity and a focus on inner substance.

Rejection of Oaths and War

A foundational testimony is the refusal to swear oaths, based on Jesus's injunctions in the Sermon on the Mount. Similarly, Quakers traditionally uphold a testimony of peace, refusing participation in war or military service due to their belief that all violence is contrary to Christ's teachings. This commitment has led to significant involvement in peace activism and conscientious objection.

A Journey Through Time

Early Quakerism

Founded by George Fox in the mid-17th century, Quakerism emerged as a radical movement challenging established religious and social norms. Early Friends, including the "Valiant Sixty," traveled extensively, preaching a message of direct experience with Christ and the Inner Light. They faced significant persecution, including imprisonment and banishment, for their beliefs and practices, such as refusing to pay tithes or take oaths.

Influence and Expansion

Quakers played a notable role in the development of colonial America, particularly through William Penn's founding of Pennsylvania. Their principles influenced early democratic ideals, the abolition of slavery, prison reform, and the establishment of educational institutions. The Religious Society of Friends was recognized for its commitment to peace and social justice, earning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1947 for the work of the American and British Friends Service Committees.

Internal Divisions

Theological Divergence

Throughout their history, Quakers have experienced significant theological and practical divisions. The Hicksite-Orthodox split in the 19th century, driven by differing views on the nature of Christ and the authority of the Bible versus the Inner Light, led to separate Yearly Meetings. Subsequent divisions, such as the Beaconite controversy and the rise of Gurneyite, Conservative, Evangelical, and Liberal Quakerism, reflect ongoing debates about faith, practice, and modernity.

Modern Groupings

Contemporary Quakerism is broadly categorized into groups like Evangelical Friends (emphasizing traditional Protestant theology), Gurneyites (balancing biblical authority with personal experience), Conservatives (adhering closely to early Quaker practices), Liberals (integrating modern thought and social concerns), Universalists (embracing religious pluralism), and Non-theists (valuing ethical teachings and community). These distinctions shape worship styles, theological interpretations, and organizational structures.

Quaker Enterprise and Innovation

Industrial Revolution and Commerce

Many Quakers achieved significant success in business and industry, particularly during the British Industrial Revolution. Their emphasis on integrity, diligence, and community fostered trust in commerce. Prominent Quaker families founded major enterprises in banking (e.g., Barclays, Lloyds), confectionery (Cadbury, Rowntree), shoe manufacturing (Clarks), and iron production, often integrating their faith with ethical business practices.

Educational Foundations

Quakers have a long-standing commitment to education, establishing numerous schools and colleges worldwide. From early meeting houses that served as educational centers to institutions like Earlham College and the Ramallah Friends School, Quaker education has historically emphasized holistic development, spiritual growth, and social responsibility, often integrating academic rigor with ethical principles.

Societal Contributions

Abolitionism and Social Justice

Quakers were at the forefront of the abolitionist movement, actively campaigning against slavery and advocating for the rights of marginalized groups. Figures like Benjamin Lay, Anthony Benezet, and John Woolman were instrumental in challenging the institution of slavery within Quaker communities and broader society. Their commitment to equality extended to prison reform, temperance, and international peace efforts.

Peace and Humanitarianism

The testimony of peace has led Quakers to engage deeply in peacebuilding and humanitarian work. During World Wars I and II, organizations like the Friends' Ambulance Unit and the American Friends Service Committee provided vital relief services and conscientious objector support. This dedication to nonviolence and service was recognized with the Nobel Peace Prize in 1947, highlighting their global impact on humanitarian causes.

Calendar and Observances

The Plain Calendar

Traditionally, Quakers employed a "plain calendar," numbering days and months rather than using names derived from pagan deities. Sunday is referred to as "First Day," Saturday as "Seventh Day," and January as "First Month." This practice, rooted in Puritanism and adopted by early Friends, reflected a desire to strip away worldly customs and focus on spiritual significance.

Testimony Against Times and Seasons

Many Quakers eschew traditional Christian festivals like Christmas and Easter, believing that every day should be lived in accordance with Christ's teachings. This "testimony against times and seasons" reflects a commitment to integrating spiritual practice into daily life rather than observing specific holy days. Similarly, fasting during Lent is often seen as hypocritical if not balanced by consistent simplicity throughout the year.

The Role of Women

Early Ministry and Equality

From Quakerism's inception, women played a vital role, prophesying and preaching publicly, a practice supported by the movement's core belief in spiritual equality. Figures like Margaret Fell were central to defining Quakerism, and women's meetings were established to manage community life, including marriage. Quaker women were prolific writers, publishing numerous texts in the 17th century.

Evolving Influence

While early Quakerism empowered women in spiritual and community roles, the movement's trajectory saw shifts. Orthodox Friends' move towards mainstream Protestantism sometimes diminished women's spiritual authority, whereas Hicksite Friends tended to retain greater influence within their communities. The legacy of Quaker women is also evident in their significant contributions to social reform movements, including abolitionism and women's suffrage.

Quakers and Evolutionary Theory

Initial Opposition

In the 19th century, many Quakers, particularly evangelical branches, initially opposed Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. They viewed natural selection as incompatible with their understanding of divine creation and worried it undermined biblical authority. Figures like Edward Newman expressed skepticism, finding the theory at odds with their theological framework.

Acceptance and Integration

Conversely, liberal Quaker circles, influenced by figures like John Wilhelm Rowntree and Edward Grubb, embraced evolutionary theory, often interpreting it through the lens of progressive revelation. Early acceptance occurred in American Quaker institutions like Earlham College. Today, while evangelical Friends often maintain creationist views, liberal and progressive branches generally integrate evolutionary science with their spiritual understanding.

Conscience and Civil Disobedience

Freedom of Conscience

Quakers have historically championed freedom of conscience, refusing to swear oaths or participate in war. This commitment led to the development of conscientious objection as a recognized right. In Great Britain, legislation in 1757 provided exemption from military service for Quakers, a significant milestone in religious liberty. This principle continues to guide their engagement with state authority and societal conflicts.

Peace Witness in Action

During global conflicts, Quakers demonstrated their commitment to peace through non-violent service. The formation of the Friends' Ambulance Unit and participation in the American Friends Service Committee provided medical aid and humanitarian support, embodying their belief in building a new world rather than engaging in destruction. This active witness to peace remains a core aspect of Quaker identity.

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References

1 Peter 2:9

Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, eds, The Feminist Companion to Literature in English. Women Writers from the Middle Ages to the Present (London: Batsford, 1990), p. 388.

"Quakers Often Fled Virginia", Rowlings, Virginia, Daily Press, 15 January 1989

How the Quakers Invented America, a five-minute interview with David Yount by Peter Slen, C-SPAN, 1 November 2007.

On Quaker schools in Britain and Ireland, see Quaker Schools in Great Britain and Ireland: A selective bibliography of histories and guide to records.

James 2:17

Friends United Meeting in East Africa (2002) "Christian Faith and Practice in the Friends Church".

For example, George Fox, Turcae, et omnibus sub ejus ditione, ut hoc perlegant quod ad salvationem eorum spectat (1660), pp. 10, 11, 13; cf. John 1:9)

Matar, Nabil. 1989. 'Some Notes on George Fox and Islam'. Journal of the Friends' Historical Society 55: 271â76

Not in communion with the other Oriental Orthodox Churches

A full list of references for this article are available at the Quakers Wikipedia page

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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional religious or historical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for consulting primary sources, theological scholarship, or engaging with Quaker communities directly. Always seek advice from qualified historians, theologians, or religious scholars for in-depth understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Inner Light

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction to Quakerism 🕊️

🤝 The Society of Friends

🗣️ Origins of the Name

🌍 Global Presence and Diversity

Historical Roots 🌱

🏴󠁧󠁢󠁥󠁮󠁧 Beginnings in England

🚢 Migration to North America

Core Beliefs and Theology 💡

✨ The Inner Light

📖 Scripture and Revelation

⚖️ Diversity of Thought

Forms of Worship 🙏

🧘 Waiting Worship (Unprogrammed)

🎤 Programmed Worship

Testimonies: Living Faith 🌟

🌿 Core Principles

🗣️ Plain Language and Dress

🚫 Rejection of Oaths and War

A Journey Through Time ⏳

📜 Early Quakerism

🏛️ Influence and Expansion

Internal Divisions ↔️

🧩 Theological Divergence

📊 Modern Groupings

Quaker Enterprise and Innovation 💼

🏭 Industrial Revolution and Commerce

🎓 Educational Foundations

Societal Contributions 🌍

⚖️ Abolitionism and Social Justice

🕊️ Peace and Humanitarianism

Calendar and Observances 📅

🔢 The Plain Calendar

🚫 Testimony Against Times and Seasons

The Role of Women 👩

🗣️ Early Ministry and Equality

⚖️ Evolving Influence

Quakers and Evolutionary Theory 🔬

🤔 Initial Opposition

🤝 Acceptance and Integration

Conscience and Civil Disobedience ✊

🛡️ Freedom of Conscience

🚑 Peace Witness in Action

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction to Quakerism

The Society of Friends

Origins of the Name

Global Presence and Diversity

Historical Roots

Beginnings in England

Migration to North America

Core Beliefs and Theology

The Inner Light

Scripture and Revelation

Diversity of Thought

Forms of Worship

Waiting Worship (Unprogrammed)

Programmed Worship

Testimonies: Living Faith

Core Principles

Plain Language and Dress

Rejection of Oaths and War

A Journey Through Time

Early Quakerism

Influence and Expansion

Internal Divisions

Theological Divergence

Modern Groupings

Quaker Enterprise and Innovation

Industrial Revolution and Commerce

Educational Foundations

Societal Contributions

Abolitionism and Social Justice

Peace and Humanitarianism

Calendar and Observances

The Plain Calendar

Testimony Against Times and Seasons

The Role of Women

Early Ministry and Equality

Evolving Influence

Quakers and Evolutionary Theory

Initial Opposition

Acceptance and Integration

Conscience and Civil Disobedience

Freedom of Conscience

Peace Witness in Action

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice