What are religious vows, according to the provided text?

Religious vows are public promises made by individuals who are members of religious communities. These vows specifically pertain to their conduct, practices, and overall views, serving as a formal commitment to their chosen spiritual path.

What is the meaning of the term 'votary' or 'votarist' in the context of religious vows?

A person who lives a religious life in accordance with the vows they have made is referred to as a votary or a votarist. This term signifies an individual who has publicly committed to a consecrated life through these sacred promises.

How are religious vows understood within the Buddhist tradition, particularly in Mahayana and Vajrayana?

In the Buddhist tradition, especially within Mahayana and Vajrayana, various types of religious vows are undertaken by both lay and monastic communities. These vows are integral to an individual's progression along their spiritual path, with the Vinaya texts outlining the specific vows for fully ordained Nuns and Monks across all schools of Buddhism.

Which Christian denominations are mentioned as having members who make public religious vows?

In the Christian tradition, public religious vows are made by members of the Catholic Church, Lutheran Churches, Anglican Communion, and Eastern Orthodox Churches. These vows are a public profession of the evangelical counsels or their equivalents.

What are the evangelical counsels that Christians profess through religious vows?

The evangelical counsels, also known as counsels of perfection, that Christians profess through religious vows are poverty, chastity, and obedience. Some traditions, like the Benedictines, have an equivalent set of vows, which include obedience, stability, and conversion of manners.

What is the theological understanding of religious vows in the Christian tradition?

In the Christian tradition, religious vows are seen as an individual's free and willing response to a divine call from God. This call encourages them to follow Jesus Christ more closely, guided by the Holy Spirit, within a specific form of religious living.

What is one significant legal effect of making a public religious vow in Church law?

One significant legal effect of making a public religious vow in Church law is that the person who makes it ceases to be free to marry. This is a direct consequence of the vow of chastity, which typically includes celibacy for those in consecrated life.

How does joining the consecrated life in the Catholic Church affect an individual's status within the Church hierarchy?

In the Catholic Church, joining the consecrated life means an individual becomes a member of a state of life that is neither clerical nor lay. However, members of religious orders and hermits who are in Holy Orders are considered members of the hierarchy.

What are the specific vows taken by monks and nuns following the Rule of Saint Benedict since the 6th century?

Since the 6th century, monks and nuns adhering to the Rule of Saint Benedict have made Benedictine vows of obedience, stability, and 'conversion of manners' at their public profession. Conversion of manners encompasses celibate chastity and the renunciation of private ownership.

How did the vows of mendicant orders, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans, differ from Benedictine vows?

Mendicant orders, which emerged in the 12th and 13th centuries, emphasized mobility and flexibility in their vocation. Consequently, they dropped the Benedictine concept of 'stability' and instead professed vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a format adopted by many subsequent orders and religious congregations.

What is a 'fourth vow' and which religious orders are mentioned as taking one?

A 'fourth vow' is an additional vow taken by some religious orders, indicating a special apostolate or attitude within the order. The Jesuits, for example, take a fourth vow of particular obedience to the Pope for missions, while Poor Clares profess a vow of enclosure, and the Missionaries of Charity take a vow of special service to 'the poorest of the poor'.

How are religious vows regulated in the Catholic Church?

In the Catholic Church, the vows of members of religious orders and congregations are regulated by canons 654-658 of the Code of Canon Law. These are public vows, meaning they are accepted by a superior on behalf of the Church.

What are the two main durations for religious vows in the Catholic Church?

In the Catholic Church, religious vows are typically of two durations: temporary vows, which are made for a period of time and may be renewed, and final vows, which are permanent or 'perpetual' and are taken after a few years of temporary vows.

Are there any exceptions to the typical duration of vows in the Catholic Church?

Yes, there are exceptions. For instance, the Jesuits' first vows are perpetual, and the Sisters of Charity take only temporary but renewable vows, rather than progressing to final perpetual vows in the same manner as other orders.

What are the two varieties of religious vows in the Catholic Church, and how have their differences evolved?

Religious vows in the Catholic Church are of two varieties: simple vows and solemn vows. Historically, there were significant technical differences between them in canon law, but these differences were largely suppressed by the 1983 Code of Canon Law, though the nominal distinction is still maintained.

Can a perpetual vow be superseded in the Catholic Church, and if so, under what circumstances?

Yes, a perpetual vow can be superseded by the Pope, particularly when he decides that a man under perpetual vows should become a bishop of the Church. In such cases, the individual's ties to their former religious order are dissolved, as if they had never been a member.

What other forms of consecrated life exist in the Catholic Church besides religious institutes, and what kind of commitment do they make?

Besides religious institutes, other forms of consecrated life in the Catholic Church include secular institutes, diocesan hermits, and consecrated virgins. These individuals make a public profession of the evangelical counsels (chastity, poverty, and obedience) through a vow or other sacred bond, but they live their consecrated lives in the world rather than as members of a religious institute.

How do consecrated virgins in the Catholic Church make their commitment, and what is its effect?

Consecrated virgins living in the world do not make religious vows. Instead, they express a public 'sanctum propositum' (holy purpose) to follow Christ more closely. The prayer of consecration then makes them 'sacred persons' and integrates them into the Ordo Virginum, placing them in the consecrated life.

What is the historical context of taking vows in the Eastern Orthodox Church?

Initially, taking vows was not a part of the earliest monastic foundations in the Christian East; simply wearing a monastic habit signified a lifetime commitment. Over time, however, the formal Tonsure ceremony and the taking of vows were adopted to emphasize the seriousness of the ascetic commitment to the monastic.

What are the specific vows taken by Orthodox monks?

Orthodox monks take vows of Chastity, poverty, obedience, and stability. These vows are administered during the tonsure service.

Who administers the vows to Orthodox monks and nuns?

The vows to Orthodox monks and nuns are administered by the abbot or hieromonk who performs the tonsure service. The individual administering the tonsure must be an ordained priest and hold at least the monastic rank into which the candidate is being tonsured, though a Bishop can tonsure into any degree regardless of their own monastic rank.

What are the three degrees of monasticism in the Eastern Orthodox Church?

The three degrees of monasticism in the Eastern Orthodox Church are the Rassophore, the Stavrophore, and the Schema-monk. The Rassophore wears the ryassa but takes no vows, the Stavrophore wears the cross, and the Schema-monk wears the Great Schema, which is the full monastic habit.

What are the five ethical duties or vows taught in Jainism?

Jainism teaches five ethical duties, referred to as five vows: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (not stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy/chastity), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

What are the prerequisites for an individual to undertake the five vows in Jainism?

Before undertaking the five vows in Jainism, an individual's moral precepts state that they must have access to a guru (teacher/counsellor), deva (Jina/god), and doctrine. Additionally, they must be free from five specific offenses: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about Jain truths, lack of sincere desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and lack of admiration for their spiritual pursuits.

Explain the Jain vow of *Ahimsa*.

*Ahimsa* is the first major vow in Jainism, meaning 'intentional non-violence' or 'noninjury'. It is considered the highest ethical duty and requires individuals to cause no harm to other human beings and all living beings, especially animals. This principle extends beyond actions to include non-violence in one's speech and thoughts.

What does the Jain vow of *Satya* entail?

The Jain vow of *Satya*, meaning 'truth,' requires individuals to always speak the truth. It prohibits lying, speaking untruths, and encouraging or approving others who speak untruths.

What is the meaning of *Brahmacharya* for Jain monks/nuns versus laypersons?

*Brahmacharya* in Jainism means 'celibacy.' For Jain monks and nuns, it prescribes complete abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures. For laypersons, the vow translates to chastity and faithfulness to one's partner.

What is the Jain vow of *Aparigraha*?

*Aparigraha* signifies 'non-possessiveness' in Jainism. This vow involves non-attachment to both material and psychological possessions, and it encourages avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns take this to an extreme, completely renouncing property and social relations, owning nothing, and being attached to no one.

Are there any additional vows in Jainism beyond the main five?

Yes, Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows. These include three *guṇa vratas* (merit vows) and four *śikṣā vratas*, which further guide ethical conduct.

What is the *Sallekhana* vow in Jainism, and what is its purpose?

The *Sallekhana* (or *Santhara*) vow is a 'religious death' ritual vow historically observed by Jain monks and nuns, though it is rare in modern times. In this vow, an individual voluntarily and gradually reduces their intake of food and liquid to end their life by choice and with dispassion. In Jainism, this practice is believed to reduce negative karma that could affect a soul's future rebirths.

The source material references a 19th-century painting. What is its title and who is the artist?

The source material references a painting titled "Une prise de voile," which translates to "Taking the Veil," created by Adolphe Roger in 1829. This artwork likely depicts the ceremony where a woman formally enters a religious order.

What is depicted on the Nishidhi stone mentioned in the text, and from what period is it?

The source material includes an image of a 14th-century Nishidhi stone from Karnataka, which depicts the Jain vow of *sallekhana*. This stone serves as a historical record of the practice.

What is the significance of 'public vows' in the Catholic Church?

In the Catholic Church, public vows are those that are formally accepted by a superior on behalf of the Church. This acceptance makes the vows binding under Church law and signifies a formal commitment within the consecrated life.

Can all religious congregations in the Catholic Church invite their members to take solemn vows?

No, only a limited number of religious congregations in the Catholic Church are authorized to invite their members to take solemn vows. Most religious congregations are only permitted to take simple vows, even if they are perpetual.

What is the 'conversion of manners' vow in the Benedictine tradition?

The 'conversion of manners' is one of the Benedictine vows, alongside obedience and stability. It includes celibate chastity and the renunciation of private ownership, signifying a profound change in one's way of life and dedication to God.

What is the role of the 'Vinaya' in Buddhist monastic traditions?

In the monastic tradition of all schools of Buddhism, the Vinaya expounds the vows of the fully ordained Nuns and Monks. It serves as a foundational text detailing the rules and regulations for monastic life, including the specific commitments made through vows.

How does the Catholic Church distinguish between 'simple vows' and 'solemn vows' in practice today?

While the 1983 Code of Canon Law suppressed many of the significant technical differences that once existed between simple and solemn vows, the nominal distinction is still maintained. Solemn vows represent the highest level of commitment and are only taken in certain authorized religious congregations.

What is the 'sanctum propositum' for consecrated virgins in the Catholic Church?

The 'sanctum propositum' is a 'holy purpose' publicly expressed by consecrated virgins living in the world. It is a commitment to follow Christ more closely, and while it is not a religious vow, it leads to their consecration by the diocesan Bishop and insertion into the Ordo Virginum.

What is the process for a candidate to become a monk or nun in the Eastern Orthodox Church?

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, after a period of instruction and testing as a novice, a candidate may be tonsured with the permission of their spiritual father. The tonsure service includes the administration of vows, marking their formal entry into monasticism.

What is the significance of the 'stability' vow in Benedictine monasticism?

The 'stability' vow in Benedictine monasticism commits an individual to a particular monastery for life. This vow emphasizes a deep connection to a specific community and place, fostering a sense of rootedness and continuous spiritual growth within that context.

How does the concept of 'non-possessiveness' (Aparigraha) manifest for Jain mendicants?

For Jain mendicants, the vow of *Aparigraha* means completely renouncing property and social relations. They own nothing and are attached to no one, embodying a profound detachment from worldly possessions and relationships to achieve spiritual liberation.

What is the purpose of the *Sallekhana* vow in reducing negative karma?

In Jainism, the *Sallekhana* vow, a ritual of voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life with dispassion, is believed to reduce negative karma. This reduction of karma is thought to positively influence a soul's future rebirths, leading to a more favorable spiritual outcome.

What is the role of a Bishop in tonsuring a monk or nun in the Eastern Orthodox Church?

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a Bishop, who must always be a monk, has the authority to tonsure a monk or nun into any degree of monasticism, regardless of his own specific monastic rank. This highlights the Bishop's supreme authority in such matters.

What is the difference between *anuvratas* and *mahavratas* in Jainism?

*Anuvratas* are the 'small vows' taken by Jain laypersons, representing a commitment to the five ethical duties in a less stringent manner suitable for those living in the world. *Mahavratas* are the 'great vows' taken by Jain mendicants (monks and nuns), signifying a much stricter and more comprehensive adherence to the same five ethical principles.

What are the five offenses that a Jain individual must be free from before undertaking the five vows?

Before undertaking the five vows, a Jain individual must be free from five offenses: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, a lack of sincere desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and a lack of admiration for their spiritual pursuits. These conditions ensure a genuine and firm commitment to the Jain path.

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Vows: An Overview

Defining Religious Vows

Religious vows represent solemn public commitments undertaken by individuals within spiritual communities, dictating their conduct, practices, and perspectives. These pledges are fundamental to various traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, and Jainism, serving as a framework for adherents to deepen their spiritual journey and commitment.

Global Significance

Across diverse faiths, religious vows signify a profound dedication to a spiritual path. In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, lay and monastic communities undertake various vows as they advance in their practice. Similarly, in Christianity, these public vows are made by members of religious orders in the Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox Churches, affirming their adherence to specific evangelical counsels or their equivalents.

Binding in Faith and Law

For many traditions, particularly within Christianity, religious vows are not merely personal promises but are binding under Church law. An individual who undertakes such vows is often referred to as a 'votary' or 'votarist.' These public commitments carry significant implications, such as ceasing to be free to marry, and define a distinct state of life within the religious hierarchy, often neither purely clerical nor lay, but consecrated.

Christian Traditions

The Evangelical Counsels

In the Christian tradition, religious vows are a public profession of the evangelical counsels: poverty, chastity, and obedience. These counsels are understood as a free response to a divine call to follow Jesus Christ more intimately, guided by the Holy Spirit, within a specific form of religious life. This commitment is a cornerstone for members of various religious communities across different Christian denominations.

Western Churches: Historical Evolution

The practice of religious vows in Western Christianity has evolved significantly since the 6th century. Early monastic communities, particularly those following the Rule of Saint Benedict, made vows of obedience, stability (commitment to a specific monastery), and "conversion of manners," which encompassed celibate chastity and the renunciation of private ownership.

Mendicant Orders (12th-13th Centuries): Orders like the Franciscans and Dominicans emerged with a focus on mobility and flexibility. They adapted the vows, professing chastity, poverty, and obedience, thereby omitting the Benedictine vow of stability. This format became standard for many subsequent orders.
Clerks Regular (16th Century onwards): Groups such as the Jesuits and Redemptorists adopted the core vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Some orders introduced a "fourth vow" to signify a unique apostolate or charism. For instance, fully professed Jesuits take a special vow of obedience to the Pope for specific missions, Poor Clares profess a vow of enclosure, and the Missionaries of Charity (founded in the 1940s) commit to special service for "the poorest of the poor."

Lutheran and Anglican Orders

While the source text acknowledges the presence of religious orders and societies within the Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Communion, it does not provide specific details regarding their unique vow structures or practices. These traditions also feature consecrated life, often reflecting similar evangelical counsels, but their specific canonical regulations and historical developments would require further exploration beyond the scope of this document.

Catholic Church

Canonical Regulation of Vows

In the Catholic Church, the vows undertaken by members of religious orders and congregations are meticulously regulated by the Code of Canon Law, specifically canons 654-658. These are classified as "public vows," meaning they are formally accepted by a religious superior on behalf of the Church, signifying a profound and legally binding commitment.

Temporary and Final Commitments

Religious vows typically progress through two stages: temporary and final (or perpetual) vows. After an initial period, temporary vows may be renewed multiple times before an individual is granted permission to make final, permanent vows. There are notable exceptions, such as the Jesuits, whose initial vows are perpetual, and the Sisters of Charity, who take only temporary but renewable vows, reflecting the diverse charisms and structures within consecrated life.

Simple vs. Solemn Vows

Historically, a significant distinction existed in canon law between "simple vows" and "solemn vows," with the latter representing a higher level of commitment and carrying more profound legal implications. While the 1983 Code of Canon Law largely suppressed these technical differences, the nominal distinction is still maintained. Only a select number of religious congregations are authorized to invite their members to make solemn vows; most are limited to simple vows. It is also possible for some members with perpetual vows in solemn vow congregations to have taken them simply rather than solemnly.

Papal Authority and Consecrated Life

A unique aspect of Catholic canon law is the Pope's authority to supersede a perpetual vow. For instance, if a man under perpetual vows is appointed as a bishop, his ties to his former religious order are dissolved, effectively as if he had never been a member. This highlights the supreme authority of the Roman Pontiff within the Church's legal framework. Despite the formal dissolution, such individuals, like Pope Francis, are often informally regarded as still connected to their former order and remain welcome in its communities.

Other Forms of Consecrated Life

Beyond traditional religious institutes, the Catholic Church recognizes other forms of consecrated life for both men and women who publicly profess the evangelical counsels but live "in the world." These include:

Secular Institutes: Members live consecrated lives while remaining engaged in secular professions and environments.
Diocesan Hermits (Canon 603): Individuals who live an eremitic life under the direction of their local bishop, professing the three evangelical counsels individually.
Consecrated Virgins (Canon 604): Women who, without joining a religious institute, are consecrated to God by their diocesan bishop through a public liturgical rite. They express a "holy purpose" (sanctum propositum) to follow Christ more closely, becoming "sacred persons" within the Ordo Virginum.

Societies of Apostolic Life also exist, sharing a common life and pursuing a specific apostolic purpose, though they do not typically take religious vows in the same manner as religious institutes.

Eastern Orthodox

Historical Development of Vows

In the Christian East, the formal taking of vows was not an original component of early monasticism. Initially, the adoption of a specific monastic habit signified a lifelong commitment to God and the ascetic life. Over time, however, the formal Tonsure ceremony and the explicit taking of vows were introduced to underscore the gravity and permanence of the monastic commitment being embraced by the individual.

The Orthodox Monastic Vows

Orthodox monks and nuns undertake four specific vows:

Chastity: A commitment to celibacy and purity.
Poverty: Renunciation of personal possessions and material wealth.
Obedience: Submission to the spiritual direction of the abbot, abbess, or spiritual father.
Stability: A pledge to remain steadfast in their monastic calling and often to a particular monastery.

These vows are administered by the abbot or hieromonk during the Tonsure service, following a period of instruction and testing as a novice.

Degrees of Monasticism

The Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes three distinct degrees of monasticism, each representing a deeper level of commitment:

Ryassaphore: The first stage, where the individual wears the ryassa (cassock). At this level, no formal vows are taken; it is a period of probation and preparation.
Stavrophore: The second degree, where the monk or nun wears the cross (stavros). This stage involves the formal taking of vows.
Schema-monk (or Schema-nun): The highest degree, where the monastic wears the Great Schema, representing the full monastic habit and the deepest commitment to the ascetic life.

The Tonsure, which formalizes entry into these degrees, must be performed by an ordained priest who is himself a monk of at least the rank being conferred, or by a Bishop, who in the Orthodox Church, must always be a monk, regardless of his own monastic rank.

Jain Ethics & Vows

The Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)

Jainism outlines five fundamental ethical duties, known as vows, which serve as the bedrock of its moral philosophy. For Jain laypersons, these are termed anuvratas (small vows), while for Jain mendicants (monks and nuns), they are known as mahavratas (great vows), signifying a more rigorous adherence. Before undertaking these vows, a Jain is expected to have access to a guru, deva (Jina, god), and doctrine, and to be free from five specific offenses: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness regarding Jain truths, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits.

Ahimsa: Non-Violence

The foremost and highest ethical duty in Jainism is Ahimsa, or "intentional non-violence" and "non-injury." This vow mandates causing no harm to other human beings and all living beings, particularly animals. The principle extends beyond physical actions to encompass non-violence in one's speech and thoughts, reflecting a comprehensive commitment to compassion and respect for all life.

Satya: Truthfulness

The vow of Satya requires adherents to always speak the truth. This means refraining from lying, avoiding speaking what is untrue, and not encouraging or approving of others who speak untruths. It emphasizes integrity and honesty in all forms of communication.

Asteya: Non-Stealing

Asteya, the vow of "not stealing," dictates that a Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. For Jain mendicants, this principle is even more stringent, requiring them to ask for explicit permission even when something is offered. This vow promotes respect for others' property and autonomy.

Brahmacharya: Celibacy/Chastity

The vow of Brahmacharya prescribes abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, this vow translates to chastity and faithfulness to one's partner, emphasizing self-control and ethical conduct in relationships.

Aparigraha: Non-Possessiveness

Aparigraha signifies "non-possessiveness," encompassing non-attachment to both material and psychological possessions, and actively avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns take this to its extreme, completely renouncing property and social relations, owning nothing, and being attached to no one, embodying a profound detachment from worldly concerns.

Supplementary Vows and Sallekhana

In addition to the five main vows, Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows, which include three guṇa vratas (merit vows) and four śikṣā vratas (disciplinary vows). A particularly profound vow is Sallekhana (or Santhara), a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life. Historically practiced by Jain monks and nuns, though rare today, this vow involves the voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion. In Jain philosophy, this practice is believed to significantly reduce negative karma, thereby influencing a soul's future rebirths.

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References

Chart showing the place of those making religious vows among the People of God

In the Roman Catholic Church, see canons 573, 603 and 654 of the Code of Canon Law 1983; only the Benedictines continue to make the equivalent Benedictine vow.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Religious vows Wikipedia page

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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not spiritual or religious advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for theological study, spiritual direction, or consultation with religious authorities. Always refer to official religious texts, doctrines, and qualified spiritual leaders for guidance on matters of faith and practice. Never disregard established religious teachings or seek to interpret complex theological concepts based solely on information presented here.

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Sacred Pledges: An Academic Exploration of Religious Vows

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Vows: An Overview 📜

🤝 Defining Religious Vows

🌐 Global Significance

⚖️ Binding in Faith and Law

Christian Traditions ⛪

🕊️ The Evangelical Counsels

🌍 Western Churches: Historical Evolution

✝️ Lutheran and Anglican Orders

Catholic Church 🇻🇦

📜 Canonical Regulation of Vows

⏳ Temporary and Final Commitments

⚖️ Simple vs. Solemn Vows

👑 Papal Authority and Consecrated Life

🚶‍♀️ Other Forms of Consecrated Life

Eastern Orthodox ☦️

🕰️ Historical Development of Vows

🙏 The Orthodox Monastic Vows

ascending_node Degrees of Monasticism

Jain Ethics & Vows ✋

🌟 The Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)

🌱 Ahimsa: Non-Violence

🗣️ Satya: Truthfulness

🚫 Asteya: Non-Stealing

🧘‍♀️ Brahmacharya: Celibacy/Chastity

👐 Aparigraha: Non-Possessiveness

✨ Supplementary Vows and Sallekhana

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Vows: An Overview

Defining Religious Vows

Global Significance

Binding in Faith and Law

Christian Traditions

The Evangelical Counsels

Western Churches: Historical Evolution

Lutheran and Anglican Orders

Catholic Church

Canonical Regulation of Vows

Temporary and Final Commitments

Simple vs. Solemn Vows

Papal Authority and Consecrated Life

Other Forms of Consecrated Life

Eastern Orthodox

Historical Development of Vows

The Orthodox Monastic Vows

Degrees of Monasticism

Jain Ethics & Vows

The Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)

Ahimsa: Non-Violence

Satya: Truthfulness

Asteya: Non-Stealing

Brahmacharya: Celibacy/Chastity

Aparigraha: Non-Possessiveness

Supplementary Vows and Sallekhana

Teacher's Corner

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References

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Important Notice