How is Research and Development (R&D) generally defined, and what is its primary objective?

Research and development (R&D), sometimes referred to as experiment and design in certain countries, encompasses the innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments to create new services or products. The main objective of an R&D department is to develop these new offerings, marking the initial stage in the development of a potential new service or production process.

What is a key characteristic that distinguishes R&D from most other corporate activities?

R&D fundamentally differs from the majority of corporate activities because it is not primarily intended to generate immediate profit. It typically involves a higher degree of risk and an uncertain return on investment, meaning that the financial outcomes are not guaranteed or quickly realized.

Why is R&D considered vital for companies seeking to expand their market share?

R&D is crucial for companies because it enables them to acquire larger shares of the market through the introduction of new products and services, which can attract more customers and provide a competitive edge.

What does the acronym R&D&I signify in the context of innovation?

The acronym R&D&I represents Research and Development with innovation, emphasizing that the process includes not only the creation of new ideas and products but also their successful implementation and market introduction.

What critical role does new product design and development play in a company's long-term viability?

New product design and development is often a crucial factor in a company's survival. In a rapidly evolving global industrial landscape, firms must continually update their product designs and ranges to adapt to fierce competition and changing consumer preferences.

What alternative strategies can a firm utilize to access innovations if it does not have an internal R&D program?

If a firm does not have an internal R&D program, it must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and various networks to tap into the innovations developed by other organizations.

Can you explain the difference between a market-driven and a technology-driven R&D approach?

A market-driven R&D system prioritizes customer needs, producing goods that are known to sell based on market research that identifies consumer demands and potential niche markets. Conversely, a technology-driven R&D approach directs efforts toward developing products that meet previously unmet needs by leveraging existing or emerging technological capabilities.

Who typically conducts research and development activities for companies?

Research and development activities are generally conducted by specialized units or centers that belong to a company, or they can be outsourced to external entities such as contract research organizations, universities, or state agencies.

In a commercial setting, what is the usual orientation of 'research and development' activities?

In the context of commerce, 'research and development' typically refers to future-oriented, longer-term activities in science or technology. These activities employ techniques similar to scientific research but are specifically directed toward desired commercial outcomes with broad forecasts of potential yield.

What are some common metrics used to gauge the level of R&D activity within an industry?

Common measures used to express the state of an industry's R&D activity include the budgets allocated to R&D, the number of patents granted, and the rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are also considered a reliable measure, as they are continuously maintained, publicly available, and reflect associated risks.

What is 'R&D intensity' in the United States, and what is a typical ratio for an industrial company?

In the United States, 'R&D intensity' is a measure that represents the proportion of a company's revenues dedicated to research and development. A typical ratio for an industrial company is approximately 3.5% of its revenues.

Which types of companies are noted for having exceptionally high R&D intensity, and what are some examples?

High technology companies, such as computer manufacturers, often exhibit high R&D intensity, spending around 7% of revenues. Pharmaceutical companies like Merck & Co. (14.1%) and Novartis (15.1%) also show high intensity. Engineering company Ericsson (24.9%) and biotech company Allergan (43.4%) are examples of firms with remarkable R&D investment, often exceeding 15%.

How are companies that spend over 15% of their revenues on R&D often perceived in terms of financial risk?

Companies that spend over 15% of their revenues on R&D are often perceived as credit risks because their high spending ratios are unusual and indicate a greater level of uncertainty in their business operations.

What characteristics define the markets where high-tech organizations with substantial R&D investments typically succeed?

High-tech organizations with substantial R&D investments typically succeed in markets where customers have extremely high technology needs. These include sectors like certain prescription drugs, special chemicals, scientific instruments, and safety-critical systems in medicine, aeronautics, or military weapons, where the extreme needs justify the high risk of failure and the potential for high gross margins.

What are the typical gross profit margins for high-tech companies with high R&D, and what accounts for these high margins?

High-tech companies with significant R&D often achieve gross profit margins ranging from 60% to 90% of revenues. These high margins are necessary because many individual R&D projects do not yield an exploitable product, and manufacturing costs may only account for about 10% of the product price.

What technical approaches do high-tech organizations use to offset the substantial overhead costs of advanced technologies?

To amortize the high overhead associated with advanced technologies, high-tech organizations frequently explore methods to re-purpose and repackage these technologies. This involves reusing advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs, and mechanical subsystems.

What did research from 2000 reveal about the performance of firms with a consistent R&D strategy?

Research conducted in 2000 indicated that firms that maintain a persistent R&D strategy consistently outperform those with an irregular or non-existent R&D investment program.

Why is the management of research and development inherently challenging?

The management of research and development is inherently challenging because a defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance the exact methods to achieve the desired result, introducing significant uncertainty into the process.

Does increased R&D spending automatically lead to greater creativity, higher profits, or a larger market share?

No, increased R&D spending does not automatically guarantee greater creativity, higher profit, or a larger market share, primarily due to the inherent uncertainty and risk associated with research outcomes.

How can entrepreneurs reduce the uncertainties associated with R&D projects?

Entrepreneurs can reduce some of the uncertainties associated with R&D projects by acquiring a license for a franchise, which means the necessary operational knowledge and proven business model are already incorporated into the license agreement.

Is there a correlation between R&D and firm productivity across all sectors, and how does this correlation differ between high-tech and low-tech firms?

Yes, a positive correlation has been observed between R&D and firm productivity across all sectors. However, this positive correlation is considerably stronger in high-tech firms compared to low-tech firms.

According to Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli, what were the distinct 'Matthew effects' observed in high-tech and low-tech industries concerning R&D subsidies?

Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli found that high-tech firms experienced 'virtuous' Matthew effects, meaning they were awarded R&D subsidies based on their merit and successful outcomes. In contrast, low-tech firms often experienced 'vicious' Matthew effects, receiving subsidies more frequently due to name recognition rather than the effective utilization of the funds.

What significant impact has R&D in low-tech industries been shown to have, despite a weaker direct correlation with productivity?

Despite a less pronounced direct correlation with productivity, studies have shown that R&D in low-tech industries can have non-trivial carryover effects that benefit other parts of the marketplace.

What are the two primary sources of risk for business R&D activities?

Business R&D is risky for two main reasons: first, R&D projects can fail entirely without yielding any residual value; and second, there are takeover risks, as a company's R&D assets can make it an attractive acquisition target for other firms seeking to gain technologies.

How do takeover risks influence the profitability of R&D for a company?

Takeover risks can cause R&D profit to fluctuate in alignment with takeover waves, thereby introducing additional financial risks for companies actively engaged in R&D activities.

What is the scope of global R&D management?

Global R&D management is the discipline dedicated to designing and leading R&D processes on an international scale, encompassing diverse cultural and linguistic environments, and facilitating the transfer of knowledge across multinational corporate networks.

How has the funding landscape for research and development in the United States evolved since the 1960s?

Since the 1960s, the funding for research and development in the United States has seen a shift, with private businesses providing an increasing share of the funding, while direct federal funding has concurrently waned.

What was the U.S. federal R&D budget for fiscal year 2020, and what portion was allocated to the Department of Defense?

The U.S. federal research and development budget for fiscal year 2020 was $156 billion, with 41.4% of this budget allocated to the Department of Defense (DOD).

What was the approximate total budget for the Department of Defense's research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) in fiscal year 2020?

The Department of Defense's total budget for research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) in fiscal year 2020 was approximately $108.5 billion.

Which country held the top position globally for R&D spending as a percentage of GDP in 2022, and what was its percentage?

In 2022, Israel was the world leader in R&D spending as a percentage of GDP, dedicating 6.02% of its Gross Domestic Product to these activities.

How did Israel establish its initial research infrastructure during the 1970s and 1980s?

During the 1970s and 1980s, Israel initially built its research infrastructure through various programs, frequently focusing on the defense industry.

What was the impact of Israel's 1984 law for Encouragement of Research and Development in Industry?

The 1984 law for Encouragement of Research and Development in Industry in Israel encouraged the commercial sector to invest in R&D within the country and empowered the Office of Chief Scientist to significantly expand R&D subsidies in the Israeli industrial sector.

What was the 'Yozma program' initiated in Israel in 1993, and what was its outcome?

The 'Yozma program,' initiated in Israel in 1993, was a government-backed venture capital fund program that led to a doubling in value of Israel's 10 new venture capital funds within three years, significantly boosting its high-tech ecosystem.

How did Israel's private equity sector compare globally in the late 1990s?

In the late 1990s, Israel ranked second globally, surpassed only by the United States, in terms of private equity as a share of its general economy.

What is Israel's high-tech sector known as, and how was it ranked by Startup Genome in 2023?

Israel's high-tech sector is known as Silicon Wadi, which has earned the country the nickname 'Start-up Nation.' In 2023, it was ranked as the 4th leading startup ecosystem in the world by Startup Genome, with an estimated value of $253 billion.

What trend has been observed in R&D investments within the European Union over the past two decades?

Over the past two decades, Europe has been observed to be lagging in R&D investments, failing to achieve its target of dedicating 3% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to R&D by 2020.

What is a notable consequence of the disparity in R&D spending among EU Member States?

A notable consequence of the disparity in R&D spending among EU Member States is the creation of a digital divide between countries, as only a few members achieve substantial R&D investment levels.

Which program is responsible for financially supporting research and innovation across Europe?

Research and innovation in Europe receive financial support from the Horizon 2020 program, which is designed to be open for participation from entities worldwide.

What is the foundation and objective of the European environmental research and innovation policy?

The European environmental research and innovation policy is founded on the Europe 2020 strategy, which was active from 2014 to 2020. Its objective is a multidisciplinary effort to provide solutions that are safe, economically feasible, environmentally sound, and socially acceptable across the entire value chain of human activities.

How did the adoption of advanced digital technology influence R&D investment among EU firms, particularly during the pandemic?

Firms that adopted advanced digital technology dedicated a greater proportion of their investment efforts to R&D. During the pandemic, companies that engaged in digitization reported spending a significant portion of their 2020 expenditure on software, data, IT infrastructure, and website operations.

In a 2021/2022 survey, what percentage of enterprises in Central, Eastern, and South Eastern Europe were identified as active innovators, and how did this compare to the EU average?

A 2021/2022 survey found that 14% of enterprises in the Central, Eastern, and South Eastern regions of Europe were classified as active innovators, meaning they invested heavily in R&D and developed new products, processes, or services. This figure was lower than the EU average of 18%.

As of 2023, what share of the world's top 2,500 R&D corporations are European enterprises, and how does their representation among new entrants compare to the U.S. and China?

As of 2023, European enterprises account for 18% of the world's top 2,500 R&D corporations. However, they represent only 10% of new entrants, which is significantly lower than the 45% for the United States and 32% for China.

Which sectors led in R&D investment in Europe as of 2024, and what were their respective investment percentages?

As of 2024, the electronics sector led in R&D investment in Europe, dedicating 28% of its total investment to R&D. This was followed by textiles (19%), digital (18%), and aerospace (15%), with other sectors allocating less than 10%.

What was the global average R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP in 2015 and 2018, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics?

According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, global research and development expenditure constituted an average of 2.2% of the global GDP in 2015, which then decreased to an average of 1.79% by 2018.

What commitment did countries make in 2015 regarding R&D as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, and what trend has been observed in data reporting since then?

In 2015, countries committed to monitoring their progress in increasing research intensity (SDG 9.5.1) and researcher density (SDG 9.5.2) as part of their efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. However, this undertaking has not led to an increase in data reporting; instead, the number of countries reporting data on domestic R&D investment and researchers declined between 2015 and 2018.

According to the provided table, which country had the highest R&D spending as a percentage of GDP, and what was that percentage?

Based on the table 'Top countries by R&D spending,' Israel had the highest R&D spending as a percentage of GDP, recorded at 5.44%.

What were the R&D spending percentages of Korea and Sweden as a share of GDP, according to the table?

The table indicates that Korea's R&D spending was 4.81% of its GDP, while Sweden's was 3.53% of its GDP.

What was the United States' R&D spending as a percentage of GDP, according to the provided data?

The United States' R&D spending as a percentage of GDP was 3.45%, as presented in the table of top countries by R&D spending.

What percentage of its GDP did China spend on R&D, according to the table?

According to the provided table, China spent 2.40% of its GDP on R&D.

What concept is visually represented by the image titled 'Cycle of research and development'?

The image titled 'Cycle of research and development' visually illustrates the continuous and iterative process that defines research and development activities, from initial idea to implementation.

Research And Development Wiki: The Innovation Engine: Decoding Research and Development

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Defining R&D

The Genesis of Innovation

Research and development (R&D) encompasses the innovative activities undertaken by both corporations and governments to conceive and refine new services or products. It represents the foundational stage in the lifecycle of a potential new offering or production methodology. Fundamentally, the primary objective of an R&D department is to cultivate novel products and services.

Strategic Imperative

Unlike most corporate endeavors, R&D is not designed for immediate profitability. Instead, it inherently involves elevated risk and an uncertain return on investment, making it a long-term strategic commitment. Despite these challenges, R&D is indispensable for organizations aiming to secure larger market shares through the introduction of groundbreaking products. The broader concept of R&D&I extends this definition to explicitly include innovation as an integral outcome.

Business R&D Dynamics

Strategic Imperatives for Survival

In today's rapidly evolving global industrial landscape, the continuous design and development of new products are paramount for a company's survival. Firms must constantly update their product offerings to navigate fierce competition and adapt to the dynamic preferences of consumers. Without a robust R&D program, a company is compelled to rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and external networks to access innovations developed by others.

Operational Models and Sourcing

R&D initiatives can be driven by various philosophies. A "marketing-driven" system prioritizes customer needs, developing products known to have market demand based on thorough market research. Conversely, "technology-driven" R&D focuses on creating products to address previously unmet needs through technological advancement. These activities are typically conducted by specialized internal units or centers, but can also be outsourced to contract research organizations, universities, or state agencies. Commercial R&D generally involves future-oriented, longer-term scientific or technological pursuits, employing scientific research techniques but with a clear orientation towards commercial outcomes and projected yields.

Investment, Risk, and Returns

Metrics such as R&D budgets, patent counts, and peer-reviewed publications often reflect an industry's vitality and competitive intensity. Bank ratios, being continuously updated and public, offer a reliable measure of R&D investment and associated risk. In the United States, a typical R&D intensity (R&D as a percentage of revenues) for an industrial company is around 3.5%. However, high-technology firms, such as computer manufacturers (7%) or pharmaceutical giants like Merck & Co. (14.1%) and Novartis (15.1%), exhibit significantly higher intensities. Investments exceeding 15% are considered remarkable, often characterizing companies like Ericsson (24.9%) or Allergan (43.4%). Such high spending can render these firms credit risks, yet they thrive in markets demanding extreme high-technology solutions—e.g., specialized drugs, scientific instruments, or safety-critical systems in aerospace or defense. These sectors justify high failure risks with gross margins of 60% to 90%, where manufacturing costs may be as low as 10% of the product price, compensating for numerous unexploitable projects. High-tech organizations frequently amortize substantial overhead by repurposing and repackaging advanced technologies, reusing sophisticated manufacturing processes, certifications, embedded software, and mechanical subsystems. Research indicates that firms with a consistent R&D strategy consistently outperform those with irregular or no R&D investment.

Inherent Challenges and Risks

Managing R&D is inherently complex due to the fundamental uncertainty that researchers often do not know the exact path to achieving a desired outcome. Consequently, higher R&D spending does not automatically translate into increased creativity, greater profit, or a larger market share. Research represents the riskiest area of financing, as both the development of an invention and its successful market realization are fraught with uncertainty, including its ultimate profitability. Entrepreneurs can mitigate some of these uncertainties by acquiring licenses for established franchises, thereby incorporating proven know-how. Additionally, R&D faces takeover risks, as successful R&D initiatives can make a company an attractive acquisition target for bidders seeking to gain access to its technologies. This potential for R&D profits to align with takeover waves introduces further risk for companies heavily engaged in R&D activities.

Sectoral R&D Impact

High-Tech vs. Low-Tech Productivity

Empirical studies consistently demonstrate a positive correlation between research and development investment and firm productivity across all economic sectors. However, this correlation is markedly stronger in high-technology firms compared to their low-technology counterparts. Research by Francesco Crespi and Cristiano Antonelli revealed "virtuous" Matthew effects in high-tech firms, where subsidies were awarded based on merit, leading to effective utilization. In contrast, low-tech firms often experienced "vicious" Matthew effects, receiving subsidies based on name recognition rather than demonstrable impact.

Spillover Effects in Low-Tech Industries

Despite the less pronounced direct correlation between R&D spending and productivity in low-tech industries, studies have identified significant "carryover effects" that benefit other segments of the marketplace. This suggests that even R&D in traditional sectors can generate non-trivial benefits that extend beyond the immediate firm, contributing to broader economic advancement and innovation ecosystems.

Global R&D Management

Navigating International Innovation

Global R&D management is a specialized discipline focused on the strategic design and leadership of R&D processes across diverse international contexts. This includes navigating varied cultural and linguistic environments, as well as facilitating the efficient transfer of knowledge across complex international corporate networks. Effective global R&D management is crucial for multinational corporations seeking to leverage worldwide talent and resources for innovation.

Governmental R&D Investments

United States Funding Landscape

Governmental investment in R&D plays a significant role in national innovation ecosystems. In the United States, former President Barack Obama's FY2012 request for R&D funding totaled $147.696 billion, with 21% allocated to basic research. By 2015, federal and local government R&D expenditures reached $54 billion and $0.6 billion, respectively. The federal R&D budget for fiscal year 2020 was $156 billion, with a substantial 41.4% directed towards the Department of Defense (DOD). The DOD's total budget for research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) was approximately $108.5 billion, highlighting the significant military contribution to national R&D.

Israel's Innovation Leadership

Israel stands as a global leader in R&D spending as a percentage of GDP, reaching 6.02% in 2022. This leadership stems from a concerted effort initiated in the 1970s and 1980s to build a robust research infrastructure, often linked to the defense industry. The 1984 Law for Encouragement of Research and Development in Industry spurred commercial sector investment and empowered the Office of Chief Scientist, which significantly expanded R&D subsidies in the Israeli industrial sector between the 1980s and 1992. Israel's strategy included fostering high-tech startup clusters and venture capital investments, notably through the 1993 Yozma program, which doubled the value of 10 new venture capital funds within three years. By the late 1990s, Israel was second only to the U.S. in private equity as a share of its economy. Its high-tech sector, known as "Silicon Wadi," has earned Israel the moniker "Start-up Nation," ranking as the 4th leading startup ecosystem globally with a value of $253 billion in 2023.

European Union's R&D Trajectory

Over the past two decades, Europe has faced challenges in its R&D investments, falling short of its target of 3% of GDP by 2020. This has contributed to a "digital divide" among member states, as only a few allocate significant R&D spending. The European Union supports research and innovation through programs like Horizon 2020, which is open to global participation. A key initiative is the European environmental research and innovation policy, part of the Europe 2020 strategy (2014-2020), aiming for safe, economically viable, environmentally sound, and socially acceptable solutions across various human activities. Firms embracing advanced digital technology tend to dedicate a larger portion of their investment to R&D. A 2021/2022 survey indicated that 14% of enterprises in Central, Eastern, and South Eastern European regions were active innovators, lower than the EU average of 18%. In 2022, 67% of enterprises in these regions, and 69% across the EU, deployed at least one sophisticated digital technology. As of 2023, European enterprises constitute 18% of the world's top 2,500 R&D corporations but only 10% of new entrants, contrasting with 45% in the U.S. and 32% in China. In 2024, the electronics sector leads EU R&D investment at 28%, followed by textiles (19%), digital (18%), and aerospace (15%), with other sectors below 10%. Despite being significant R&D investors, EU-based companies accounted for only 1% of acquisitions involving EU-based firms between 2013 and 2023, indicating a "scale-up gap."

Global Investment Overview

Globally, R&D expenditures averaged 2.2% of the global GDP in 2015, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. This figure slightly decreased to 1.79% by 2018. In 2015, countries committed to monitoring progress in research intensity (SDG 9.5.1) and researcher density (SDG 9.5.2) as part of the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. However, this commitment has not consistently led to increased data reporting; 99 countries reported domestic R&D investment data in 2015, but only 69 did so in 2018. Similarly, the number of countries reporting researcher figures (in full-time equivalents) dropped from 90 in 2015 to 59 in 2018, indicating a challenge in comprehensive global data collection for R&D.

Global R&D Metrics

Leading Nations in R&D Intensity

Understanding national commitments to research and development is crucial for assessing global innovation trends. The following table presents the top countries by their R&D spending as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), offering a snapshot of where innovation investment is most concentrated globally.

Top Countries by R&D Spending (as % of GDP)
Country	R&D as % of GDP
Israel	5.44
Korea	4.81
Sweden	3.53
Belgium	3.48
United States	3.45
Japan	3.26
Austria	3.20
Switzerland	3.15
Germany	3.14
Denmark	2.96
Finland	2.94
Iceland	2.47
China	2.40
France	2.35
Netherlands	2.29
Norway	2.28
Slovenia	2.15
Czechia	1.99
Singapore	1.89
Australia	1.83

This data highlights the varying levels of national investment in R&D, reflecting different strategic priorities and economic structures. Countries with higher percentages often demonstrate a strong focus on innovation-driven growth and technological advancement.

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References

EUROPEAN COMMISSION https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases/220403/220403_758165_5_1.pdf

A full list of references for this article are available at the Research and development Wikipedia page

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The Innovation Engine

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Defining R&D 🔬

✨ The Genesis of Innovation

📈 Strategic Imperative

Business R&D Dynamics 🏢

🧭 Strategic Imperatives for Survival

🔄 Operational Models and Sourcing

💰 Investment, Risk, and Returns

🚧 Inherent Challenges and Risks

Sectoral R&D Impact 📊

🚀 High-Tech vs. Low-Tech Productivity

🔗 Spillover Effects in Low-Tech Industries

Global R&D Management 🌐

🌍 Navigating International Innovation

Governmental R&D Investments 🏛️

🇺🇸 United States Funding Landscape

🇮🇱 Israel's Innovation Leadership

🇪🇺 European Union's R&D Trajectory

🌐 Global Investment Overview

Global R&D Metrics 📈

🌍 Leading Nations in R&D Intensity

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining R&D

The Genesis of Innovation

Strategic Imperative

Business R&D Dynamics

Strategic Imperatives for Survival

Operational Models and Sourcing

Investment, Risk, and Returns

Inherent Challenges and Risks

Sectoral R&D Impact

High-Tech vs. Low-Tech Productivity

Spillover Effects in Low-Tech Industries

Global R&D Management

Navigating International Innovation

Governmental R&D Investments

United States Funding Landscape

Israel's Innovation Leadership

European Union's R&D Trajectory

Global Investment Overview

Global R&D Metrics

Leading Nations in R&D Intensity

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice