What is the fundamental definition of royal assent in a monarchical system?

Royal assent is the formal process by which a monarch approves a bill passed by the legislature, thereby enabling it to become law. In some systems, this act also serves as promulgation, while in others, promulgation is a separate step.

How is royal assent typically viewed in modern constitutional monarchies?

In contemporary constitutional monarchies, royal assent is generally considered a formality, with the monarch rarely withholding approval. This practice reflects the shift of political power from the monarch to elected governments and parliaments.

Which European monarchies still theoretically allow the monarch to withhold royal assent?

While rare, the monarchies of the United Kingdom, Norway, the Netherlands, Liechtenstein, and Monaco theoretically retain the power to withhold royal assent. However, this power is almost never exercised, except in extreme political emergencies or on government advice.

What was the historical trend regarding the exercise of royal assent by European monarchs?

Historically, European monarchs frequently exercised their power to withhold royal assent. However, this practice became increasingly rare after the eighteenth century, with monarchs generally deferring to the advice of their ministers and the will of Parliament.

Describe the ceremonial aspects of granting royal assent in the United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, royal assent can be granted ceremonially by the Sovereign in person in the House of Lords or by Lords Commissioners. More commonly, it is granted less formally through letters patent, which are official written orders.

How is royal assent granted in Australia and Canada?

In Australia, the Governor-General grants royal assent, and in Canada, the Governor General performs this role. In federated systems like these, assent in individual states or provinces is typically given by the respective governor or lieutenant governor.

What is the significance of Robert Blackburn's view on the modern role of royal assent?

Robert Blackburn, a professor of constitutional law, suggested that royal assent in the modern era primarily serves as due process, certifying that a bill has successfully navigated all parliamentary procedures, rather than a substantive check on legislation.

What argument did Rodney Brazier make regarding the monarch's power to refuse royal assent?

Rodney Brazier argued that a monarch could still refuse royal assent to a bill that threatened the constitution's democratic foundation. However, he acknowledged the difficulty in defining such a situation and suggested alternative methods for expressing concern.

Under what specific circumstances might a monarch refuse royal assent, according to the text?

The text suggests that royal assent could potentially be denied if a bill passed by the legislature was against the wishes of the cabinet, offering the government a last-ditch opportunity to prevent its enactment.

What was the last instance of royal assent being refused in the United Kingdom?

The last time royal assent was refused in the United Kingdom was in 1708, during the reign of Queen Anne, for the Scottish Militia Bill.

What is the historical significance of the Royal Assent by Commission Act 1541?

The Royal Assent by Commission Act 1541 was significant because it allowed the monarch to delegate the power to grant royal assent to Lords Commissioners, meaning assent no longer required the sovereign's personal presence in Parliament.

When was the last time a monarch personally granted royal assent in the UK Parliament?

Queen Victoria was the last monarch to personally grant royal assent in the UK Parliament on August 12, 1854, during a prorogation ceremony.

What are the three formal options a sovereign has when presented with a bill for royal assent in the UK?

The sovereign can grant royal assent, making the bill an act of Parliament; delay assent using reserve powers (a veto); or refuse assent on the advice of ministers.

What is the modern convention regarding the monarch acting on ministerial advice concerning royal assent?

Under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign typically acts on and in accordance with the advice of their ministers. This means that if ministers advise assent, the monarch grants it, and if they advise withholding it, the monarch would likely do so.

What was the historical context of Charles I's interpretation of the Coronation Oath regarding laws?

Charles I interpreted the Coronation Oath's phrase 'quas vulgus elegerit' (which the common people shall have chosen) to mean he was only bound to uphold laws already existing at his coronation, not those passed by Parliament, leading to controversy with the Long Parliament.

How did the Long Parliament and the Convention Parliament address the ambiguity in the Coronation Oath?

The Long Parliament favored a translation implying assent to any law passed by Parliament. The Convention Parliament resolved the controversy by removing the disputed phrase from the Coronation Oath altogether.

What was the significance of the Sedition Act 1661 concerning parliamentary power?

The Sedition Act 1661 made it a treasonable offense to suggest that Parliament possessed legislative power independent of the king, reinforcing the monarch's ultimate authority over legislation at that time.

What did Charles II's veto of the Militia Bill in 1678 suggest about royal power?

Charles II's withholding of assent from the Militia Bill, which aimed to regulate the militia, suggested his belief that the monarch, not Parliament, should control the militia.

Which monarch made liberal use of the royal veto in the late 17th century, and for which bills?

William III made comparatively liberal use of the royal veto between 1692 and 1696, withholding assent from bills concerning judges' fees, royal mines, triennial parliamentary sessions, the Place Bill (preventing MPs from holding Crown office without re-election), and property qualifications for MPs.

How did the Hanoverian dynasty's accession affect the monarch's role in legislation?

With the accession of the Hanoverian dynasty, particularly George I, monarchs relied more on their ministers due to unfamiliarity with British politics. While George III and George IV attempted to reassert royal control, the trend was towards increasing parliamentary and ministerial power.

What constitutional issue did George III and George IV raise regarding Catholic emancipation?

George III and George IV believed that granting assent to Catholic emancipation bills would violate their Coronation Oath to protect the Church of England, as it would grant rights to individuals associated with a foreign power (the Papacy).

What happened in 1914 regarding George V and the Government of Ireland Bill?

In 1914, George V sought legal advice on withholding royal assent from the highly contentious Government of Ireland Bill. He decided against it, concluding that such an action would require convincing evidence that it would avert a national disaster or have a calming effect.

What is the process for royal assent for Acts of the Scottish Parliament?

For Acts of the Scottish Parliament, after a bill passes, the Presiding Officer submits it for royal assent after a four-week period. During this time, certain legal officers can refer the bill to the UK Supreme Court to check its legality.

What was the first instance of the Secretary of State for Scotland prohibiting a bill from receiving royal assent?

The Secretary of State for Scotland first used their authority to prohibit a bill passed by the Scottish Parliament from receiving royal assent in January 2023, concerning the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill.

How were 'Measures' passed by the National Assembly for Wales assented to?

Measures passed by the National Assembly for Wales between 2006 and 2011 were assented to by Queen Elizabeth II via an Order in Council, following a review period for legality checks.

What change occurred in Wales following the 2011 devolution referendum regarding legislation?

Following the 2011 referendum, the 'Measures' previously passed by the National Assembly for Wales were replaced by 'Acts of the Assembly,' which are now known as Acts of the Senedd, with a modified assent process.

How is royal assent handled for legislation from Jersey and Guernsey?

For Jersey and Guernsey, royal assent is not granted by the Lieutenant Governors. Instead, it is formally granted or refused based on the advice of the Committee of Council for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey, following a Queen Elizabeth II Order-in-Council from 1952.

What happened in Sark in 2007 concerning the equivalent of royal assent?

In 2007, the equivalent of royal assent was refused for reforms to the constitution of the Chief Pleas of Sark. However, a revised version of the proposed reforms was later granted the equivalent of royal assent.

What is the distinction between royal assent and Royal Consent (King's/Prince's Consent)?

Royal assent is the monarch's approval of a bill after it has passed Parliament. Royal Consent, however, is required before Parliament debates a bill if it affects the monarch's prerogative or personal interests, and is always granted on government advice.

In Commonwealth realms outside the UK, who typically grants royal assent?

In Commonwealth realms outside the UK, royal assent is usually granted by the monarch's representative, the Governor-General, or in some cases, the monarch directly.

What special procedure applies to constitutional amendment bills in Australia regarding royal assent?

In Australia, bills proposing constitutional amendments must first be approved by the electorate in a referendum before they can receive royal assent.

In which Commonwealth realms is royal assent constitutionally required to be granted promptly?

In Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, constitutional provisions mandate that royal assent cannot be refused and must be granted in a timely manner.

What is the rule regarding royal assent for bills in Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines?

In Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the governor-general is constitutionally obliged to grant royal assent if a bill meets all requirements, meaning they cannot withhold it.

How does Papua New Guinea handle the enactment of legislation without royal assent?

Papua New Guinea does not require royal assent for its legislation. Instead, laws become effective upon certification by the speaker of the national parliament.

What is the historical frequency of lieutenant governors deferring assent in Canada?

Historically, lieutenant governors in Canada have deferred assent to the Governor General approximately 90 times, with the last recorded instance occurring in Saskatchewan in 1961.

What alternative practice to the ceremonial granting of assent was introduced in Canada by the Royal Assent Act, 2002?

The Royal Assent Act, 2002, introduced the practice of granting assent in writing, with each house of Parliament being notified separately, as an alternative to the traditional ceremonial assent.

Where does the royal assent ceremony typically take place in Canada?

In Canada, the royal assent ceremony traditionally takes place in the Senate chamber, as the sovereign is generally barred from attending the House of Commons.

What is the role of the Usher of the Black Rod in the Canadian royal assent ceremony?

The Usher of the Black Rod plays a key role in the Canadian royal assent ceremony by summoning members of the House of Commons to the Senate chamber for the proceedings.

What phrase is used in Canada when the Governor General assents to bills?

When assent is given, the Clerk of the Senate states that 'in his [or her] majesty's name, his [or her] excellency the governor general [or the deputy] doth assent to these bills.'

What phrase is used in Canada when the Governor General assents to supply bills?

For supply bills, the Clerk of the Senate recites that 'in his [or her] majesty's name, his [or her] excellency the governor general [or the deputy] thanks his [or her] loyal subjects, accepts their benevolence, and assents to these bills.'

What historical complaint did the United States Declaration of Independence make regarding royal assent?

The Declaration of Independence complained that King George III had refused his assent to necessary laws, forbidden governors to pass urgent laws without his assent, and then neglected to attend to them once suspended.

What happened in Alberta in 1937 concerning royal assent?

In 1937, Alberta's Lieutenant Governor, John C. Bowen, withheld royal assent from three bills passed by the provincial legislature. These bills were later confirmed as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

What technical issues arose with royal assent in Australia in 1976 and 2001?

In both 1976 and 2001, technical errors occurred in Australia where bills were mistakenly assented to before passing both houses. The Governor-General revoked the incorrect assent and then assented to the correctly passed bills.

What is the Law French phrase used to indicate the withholding of royal assent?

The euphemistic Law French phrase used to indicate the withholding of royal assent is 'Le Roy s'avisera,' which translates to 'the King will consider it.'

How did Henry VIII introduce a new method for granting royal assent?

During Henry VIII's reign, an Act of Attainder for Catherine Howard included a clause allowing assent by Commissioners to be as valid as assent given personally by the sovereign, creating a new method for granting assent.

When was the last time a monarch personally granted royal assent in the UK, and what was the method used?

Queen Victoria was the last monarch to personally grant royal assent in 1854. This was done in person in Parliament, a practice that has since been replaced by commissions or letters patent.

What change did the Royal Assent Act 1967 introduce to the process in the UK?

The Royal Assent Act 1967 allowed royal assent to be granted in writing by letters patent, presented to the presiding officer of each house, thus avoiding the need for both houses to meet jointly for the ceremony.

What is the role of the Clerk of the Parliaments in the UK royal assent process?

The Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for endorsing the act with the formal Law French formula, certifying that assent has been granted, and signing one authentic copy of the bill with the date assent was notified.

Royal Assent Wiki: The Royal Seal: Understanding Legislative Approval

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Operationalizing Royal Assent

The Monarch's Role

Royal assent is the formal mechanism by which a monarch signifies approval of legislation passed by the legislature. In contemporary constitutional monarchies, this act is largely ceremonial, representing the final step in the legislative process. While historically monarchs frequently exercised this power, its active use has become exceedingly rare, typically reserved for dire political emergencies or exercised strictly upon the advice of the government.

Historical Evolution

The power to grant or withhold royal assent was once a significant prerogative of the monarch. However, the gradual shift of power towards parliamentary sovereignty has transformed this into a formal, often symbolic, affirmation. The last instance of a monarch withholding assent in the United Kingdom was Queen Anne in 1708, highlighting the long-standing convention of its non-exercise.

Ministerial Advice and Convention

Modern constitutional practice dictates that the monarch acts on the advice of their ministers. This convention ensures that the exercise of royal assent aligns with the will of the elected government and Parliament. While the theoretical power to refuse assent remains, it is widely understood that such an action would only occur under extraordinary circumstances, and even then, likely on the explicit advice of the government to avoid constitutional crisis.

Tracing the Historical Trajectory

Origins in Royal Council

The foundation of legislative power originated with the monarch acting on the counsel of the Curia regis (Royal Council). Over time, this council evolved, leading to the establishment of Parliament. Early monarchs sought the consent of both houses before enacting laws, a practice formalized as the King's assent became integral to the legislative process.

Parliamentary Power Struggles

Periods of conflict between the Crown and Parliament, such as the reign of Charles I, underscored the tension surrounding legislative authority. The Long Parliament's assertion that the monarch was bound to assent to laws passed by Parliament, interpreting the Coronation Oath as such, marked a significant development. The eventual removal of ambiguous phrases from the oath solidified Parliament's legislative dominance.

Shifting Royal Prerogative

The Hanoverian succession saw monarchs increasingly rely on ministerial advice, diminishing direct royal involvement in legislation. While monarchs like George III and George IV attempted to assert influence, particularly on issues like Catholic emancipation, they ultimately yielded to ministerial counsel. This gradual transfer of power cemented the principle of ministerial responsibility and the disuse of the royal veto.

Royal Assent in the United Kingdom

The Final Step

In the UK, Royal Assent is the concluding stage for a bill to become an Act of Parliament. It can be granted by the Sovereign in person or, more commonly, by Lords Commissioners acting under letters patent. The Royal Assent Act 1967 introduced a less ceremonial method of granting assent in writing, allowing for greater flexibility.

Pronouncing Assent

Traditionally, the Clerk of the Parliaments pronounces assent in Norman French. For supply bills, the phrase is "Le Roy remercie ses bons sujets, accepte leur benevolence, et ainsi le veult" ("The King thanks his good subjects, accepts their bounty, and so wills it"). For other bills, it is "Le Roy le veult" ("The King wills it"). If assent is withheld, the phrase is "Le Roy s'avisera" ("The King will consider it").

Modern Practice

While the ceremony of granting assent by commission continues annually, the Royal Assent Act 1967 allows for assent to be signified in writing. This modern approach avoids disrupting parliamentary proceedings. The process is meticulously managed, with the Clerk of the Parliaments endorsing the act and certifying that assent has been granted.

Scottish Legislative Process

Acts of the Scottish Parliament

Royal assent is the final stage for legislation passed by the Scottish Parliament. Following parliamentary approval, a bill is submitted to the monarch for assent, typically after a four-week review period. During this period, legal authorities may refer the bill to the Supreme Court to assess its legality.

Signification of Assent

Assent is formally signified through letters patent under the Great Seal of Scotland. Notice of this action is published in official gazettes. In a notable instance in January 2023, the Secretary of State for Scotland exercised authority to prohibit the submission of the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill for royal assent, demonstrating a specific governmental check.

Welsh Legislative Measures

From Measures to Acts

Between 2006 and 2011, legislation from the National Assembly for Wales, known as Measures, received assent via an Order in Council. The process involved a review period where legal officers could refer measures to the Supreme Court. Following the 2011 devolution referendum, Measures were replaced by Acts of the Assembly (now Acts of the Senedd), with assent procedures adapting accordingly.

Northern Ireland Assembly Legislation

Statutory Instruments

Under the Northern Ireland Act 1998, bills approved by the Northern Ireland Assembly are presented for royal assent by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. A four-week waiting period allows for potential referral to the Supreme Court. Assent is formally granted via letters patent, as outlined in the Northern Ireland (Royal Assent to Bills) Order 1999.

Historical Context (1922-1972)

Prior to 1972, legislation passed by the Parliament of Northern Ireland received royal assent through the Governor of Northern Ireland, acting under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, which replaced the office of Lord Lieutenant.

Crown Dependencies: Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man

Jersey and Guernsey

The Lieutenant Governors of Jersey and Guernsey do not directly grant assent. Instead, the equivalent of royal assent is formally granted or refused based on the advice of the Privy Council Committee for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey, following an Order-in-Council from 1952. This process can involve refusal, as seen in 2007 concerning reforms to Sark's Chief Pleas.

Isle of Man

Legislation from the Isle of Man's Tynwald follows specific procedures. Historically, assent was signified by letter. Since 1981, the Lieutenant Governor has been delegated the power to grant assent, though bills impacting reserved powers must be referred to the British government. Measures enacted by the Church of England diocese also follow a similar assent process.

Commonwealth Realms: General Practice

Sovereign or Representative

In Commonwealth realms outside the UK, royal assent is typically granted by the monarch or, more commonly, by the Governor-General, who acts as the monarch's representative. In federal systems like Australia and Canada, assent at the state or provincial level is handled by the respective governor or lieutenant governor.

Constitutional Requirements

Some realms have constitutional provisions that limit the monarch's or Governor-General's power to refuse assent. For instance, in Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, assent must be granted in a timely manner. In Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, assent cannot be withheld if a bill meets all constitutional requirements.

Canadian Legislative Assent

Ceremony and Procedure

Canada retains the traditional ceremony for granting assent in Parliament, a practice largely discontinued elsewhere. The Governor General or a deputy (often a Supreme Court Justice) signifies assent. The Royal Assent Act, 2002, also allows for assent to be granted in writing, with notification to each house separately.

The Assent Ceremony

The ceremony takes place in the Senate. The Usher of the Black Rod summons members of the House of Commons. The Governor General, seated by the throne, nods to signify assent to presented bills. For supply bills, the pronouncement includes thanks to the subjects for their benevolence.

Historical Vetoes

Historically, lieutenant governors have deferred assent to the Governor General, who could then defer to the sovereign. Lieutenant governors have withheld assent approximately 90 times, with the last instance recorded in Saskatchewan in 1961. The Governor General can also defer assent to federal bills to the sovereign.

International Variations in Assent

Belgium and Luxembourg

In Belgium, royal assent is termed "sanction royale," requiring the King's signature, countersigned by a minister. King Baudouin's conscientious objection to an abortion bill led to a temporary declaration of incapacity, with ministers assenting on behalf of the people. Luxembourg removed the need for royal sanction in 2008, retaining only promulgation.

Japan and Thailand

In Japan, the Emperor's acts of state require the advice and approval of the Cabinet. Thailand's constitution allows the monarch to refuse assent, but the National Assembly can override a royal veto with a two-thirds majority.

Spain and Norway

Spain's monarch sanctions and promulgates laws, with a theoretical right to veto, though not constitutionally explicit. Norway's constitution allows the monarch to withhold assent, but a bill can become law if passed unaltered by two successive Storting sessions.

Malaysia and Tonga

Malaysia's constitution stipulates that bills become law automatically if not assented to within 30 days. In Tonga, the King can withhold assent, as demonstrated in 2011 when he vetoed a bill reducing sentences for illicit firearms possession.

The Ritual of Assent

UK Ceremony Evolution

Historically, the monarch granted assent in person, a practice last performed by Queen Victoria in 1854. The introduction of Lords Commissioners allowed delegation. The Royal Assent Act 1967 modernized the process, enabling written assent, though ceremonial commissions persist for annual sessions.

Canadian Tradition

Canada continues to utilize the formal ceremony in the Senate, involving the Usher of the Black Rod and the presence of both Houses. This tradition underscores the symbolic importance of the monarch's role in the legislative process.

Key Considerations

Royal Prerogative vs. Royal Assent

It is crucial to distinguish Royal Assent from Royal Consent. Consent pertains to bills affecting the monarch's prerogative or personal interests and is granted before parliamentary debate, acting as an internal parliamentary procedure. Assent, conversely, is the final legislative approval after a bill has passed both houses.

The Veto Power's Nuance

While the power to veto legislation exists in theory across many constitutional monarchies, its practical application is heavily constrained by convention and ministerial advice. The modern understanding emphasizes the monarch's role as a symbol of continuity and constitutional stability, rather than an active participant in political decision-making.

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References

This was also the last occasion on which Parliament was prorogued by the monarch in person[7]

Gilbert Burnet, A History of my Own Time, vol. II (1734), p. 274.

E.g., letter from Duke of Portland (Secretary of State) to Duke of Atholl (Governor), 15 July 1796, advising of the King's approval to two Acts but withholding assent to a third: op. cit p. 352

Royal Assent by Commission Act 1541 (33 Hen.8 c. 21)

E.Witte, De liberalisering van de abortus-wetgeving in BelgiÃ« (1970â1990), in: Rapporten en perspectieven

A full list of references for this article are available at the Royal assent Wikipedia page

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This document has been meticulously crafted by an advanced AI, drawing exclusively from the provided Source of Truth. It is intended for academic and informational purposes, aiming to elucidate the complex topic of Royal Assent for students at the Master's degree level and above. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness based on the source material, this content does not constitute legal advice or professional consultation.

This is not legal advice. The information presented herein is not a substitute for professional legal counsel or detailed study of constitutional law. Readers are encouraged to consult primary legal sources and qualified experts for specific applications or interpretations. The AI and its creators are not liable for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information provided.

The Royal Seal: Understanding Legislative Approval

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Operationalizing Royal Assent ⚙️

👑 The Monarch's Role

📜 Historical Evolution

🤝 Ministerial Advice and Convention

Tracing the Historical Trajectory ⏳

🏛️ Origins in Royal Council

⚔️ Parliamentary Power Struggles

👑 Shifting Royal Prerogative

Royal Assent in the United Kingdom 🇬🇧

📜 The Final Step

🗣️ Pronouncing Assent

📅 Modern Practice

Scottish Legislative Process 🏴󠁧󠁢󠁳󠁣󠁴󠁿

🏛️ Acts of the Scottish Parliament

✍️ Signification of Assent

Welsh Legislative Measures 🏴󠁧󠁢󠁷󠁬󠁳󠁿

📜 From Measures to Acts

Northern Ireland Assembly Legislation 🇬🇧

⚖️ Statutory Instruments

👑 Historical Context (1922-1972)

Crown Dependencies: Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man 🏝️

🏛️ Jersey and Guernsey

📜 Isle of Man

Commonwealth Realms: General Practice 🌐

👑 Sovereign or Representative

⚖️ Constitutional Requirements

Canadian Legislative Assent 🇨🇦

🏛️ Ceremony and Procedure

🗣️ The Assent Ceremony

📅 Historical Vetoes

International Variations in Assent 🌍

⚖️ Belgium and Luxembourg

🇯🇵 Japan and Thailand

🇪🇸 Spain and Norway

🇲🇾 Malaysia and Tonga

The Ritual of Assent 🎭

👑 UK Ceremony Evolution

🇨🇦 Canadian Tradition

Key Considerations 💡

🤔 Royal Prerogative vs. Royal Assent

⚠️ The Veto Power's Nuance

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Operationalizing Royal Assent

The Monarch's Role

Historical Evolution

Ministerial Advice and Convention

Tracing the Historical Trajectory

Origins in Royal Council

Parliamentary Power Struggles

Shifting Royal Prerogative

Royal Assent in the United Kingdom

The Final Step

Pronouncing Assent

Modern Practice

Scottish Legislative Process

Acts of the Scottish Parliament

Signification of Assent

Welsh Legislative Measures

From Measures to Acts

Northern Ireland Assembly Legislation

Statutory Instruments

Historical Context (1922-1972)

Crown Dependencies: Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man

Jersey and Guernsey

Isle of Man

Commonwealth Realms: General Practice

Sovereign or Representative

Constitutional Requirements

Canadian Legislative Assent

Ceremony and Procedure

The Assent Ceremony

Historical Vetoes

International Variations in Assent

Belgium and Luxembourg

Japan and Thailand

Spain and Norway

Malaysia and Tonga

The Ritual of Assent

UK Ceremony Evolution

Canadian Tradition

Key Considerations

Royal Prerogative vs. Royal Assent

The Veto Power's Nuance

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice