What geographical region is historically associated with the Saxons, and what were their early neighbors?

The Saxons were a Germanic people historically associated with "Old Saxony," located in what is now northern Germany, between the lower Rhine and Elbe rivers. Their neighbors included the Franks and Thuringians to the south, and the Frisians and Angles to the north. To their east were Slavic-speaking peoples like the Obotrites.

When did the Saxons become a recognized political entity within the Frankish empire, and what was this entity called?

The Saxons were incorporated into the Frankish empire as a "stem duchy" in 804 AD, following their conquest by Charlemagne. This entity became known as the Duchy of Saxony.

How was the term "Saxon" used in the context of early coastal raiding and settlement?

Long before "Saxony" was recognized as a state, the name "Saxons" was applied to coastal raiders who attacked the Roman Empire from north of the Rhine, similar to the later term "Viking." These early groups included peoples like the Frisians, Angles, and Jutes, and the term "Saxon" at that time did not refer to a single specific tribe.

What is the traditional etymology of the name "Saxon"?

The name "Saxon" is traditionally believed to derive from a type of knife used during the period, known as a seax in Old English and sachs in Old High German.

What is the earliest potential classical reference to the Saxons, and why is it debated?

The earliest potential mention of the Saxons comes from Ptolemy's 2nd-century *Geographia*, where some manuscripts refer to a tribe called "Saxones" north of the Elbe, and also mention "Saxon islands." However, other versions of the text refer to the same tribe as "Axones," leading to scholarly debate about whether "Saxones" is a correct reading or a later scribal correction.

What was the significance of the *Litus Saxonicum* or "Saxon Shore"?

The *Litus Saxonicum*, or "Saxon Shore," was a series of coastal defenses built by the Romans along the southeastern coast of England, consisting of nine forts. Two similar coastal military commands were established across the English Channel in northern France. The name suggests a Roman awareness of Saxon activity in these areas.

When did the Saxons first clearly appear in contemporary records as raiders, and what distinguished them?

The first clear and undisputed contemporary uses of the Saxon name appear in the 4th century, referring to events in the 3rd century. These records often associate the Saxons with coastal surprise attacks and the use of boats for their raids, particularly along the North Sea coast.

What role did the Saxons play in the 5th century concerning Britain and Gaul?

In the 5th century, Saxons were frequently linked to Britain and Gaul. Records suggest they ravaged Britain around 409-410 AD, leading to the Romano-British expelling Roman officials. By 441-442 AD, the "British provinces" were reportedly reduced to "Saxon rule." In Gaul, Saxons were involved in raids and conflicts, notably near the Loire River.

According to Gildas, how did the Saxons initially come to Britain, and what was the outcome?

According to the 6th-century historian Gildas, a Saxon force was invited to Britain as *foederati* (allies) to help defend against Pictish and Scottish raids. However, they revolted over pay, plundered the country, and initiated a long war, which the Romano-British eventually won, though Britain subsequently fragmented into "tyrannies."

What was the nature of Saxon society during the Merovingian period, according to historical records?

During the Merovingian period, records of continental Saxons are scarce, and their political unity is unclear. Some sources mention Saxons revolting against Frankish rulers like Clothar I, while others indicate Saxon populations living in areas like the Normandy coast and southwestern France, sometimes serving as allies or engaging in raids.

What was the primary objective of Charlemagne's Saxon Wars?

The primary objective of Charlemagne's Saxon Wars (772-804 AD) was to conquer the Saxons, enforce their conversion to Christianity, and integrate them into the Frankish empire. This involved destroying their pagan symbols, such as the Irminsul pillar, and imposing Frankish rule and religious practices.

How did Charlemagne deal with the Nordalbingian Saxons after their defeat?

After the final defeat of the Saxons, Charlemagne deported 10,000 Nordalbingian Saxons to Neustria. He then granted their largely vacant lands in Wagria to the loyal Abotrites, a Slavic people.

What were the long-term consequences of Charlemagne's conquest for the Saxons?

Charlemagne's conquest led to the Saxons being incorporated into the Frankish empire as a single duchy, the Duchy of Saxony. They were subjected to enforced baptism and conversion to Christianity, and their traditional political and religious structures were dismantled, replaced by Frankish systems.

How did the Saxons' social structure evolve under Carolingian rule?

Under Carolingian rule, the Saxons were reduced to tributary status. Charlemagne abolished the old system of *Gaue* and replaced it with counties, pushing the lower social castes (*frilingi* and *lazzi*) out of political power. The traditional lordship based on dues was replaced by a feudal system based on personal relationships and oaths.

What were the three main social castes among the Saxons, according to Nithard?

According to Nithard's mid-9th century description, the three main social castes among the Saxons, excluding slaves, were the *edhilingui* (nobles, likely a conquering elite), the *frilingi* (freemen, descendants of auxiliaries or freedmen), and the *lazzi* (laborers, descendants of original inhabitants who submitted to the elite).

How did the *Lex Saxonum* regulate Saxon society?

The *Lex Saxonum* (Saxon Law) regulated Saxon society by forbidding intermarriage between castes and setting different *wergilds* (man-gilds or blood money) based on caste membership. The *edhilingui* had the highest wergild, six times that of the *frilingi* and eight times that of the *lazzi*, indicating a significant social and economic divide.

What was the role of the annual council at Marklo in Saxon society?

The annual council at Marklo was a significant event where Saxons confirmed their laws, resolved outstanding legal cases, and decided on matters of war and peace for the coming year. Representatives from all three social castes participated in this council.

How did Charlemagne's administrative reforms impact the Saxon social structure and political participation?

Charlemagne abolished the traditional Saxon system of *Gaue* and replaced it with the Frankish county system. He also prohibited the Marklo councils, which effectively removed the lower social castes (*frilingi* and *lazzi*) from political power and shifted the societal structure towards a more feudal system based on service and personal allegiance.

What were the key aspects of early Saxon Germanic religion?

Early Saxon Germanic religion was intertwined with their political practices, involving invocations of gods at tribal councils and possibly attributing divine significance to the lot-drawing process for wartime leadership. They also revered sacred objects like the Irminsul pillar, believed to connect heaven and earth.

Which Germanic gods were worshipped by the Saxons in Britain, and what evidence exists for their practices?

The Saxons in Britain worshipped gods such as Woden, Frigg, Tiw, and Thunor, who are attested across Germanic traditions. Evidence for their practices includes place names, the Germanic calendar with months named after deities like Hretha and Eostre, and references to festivals like *Solmōnaþ* (February) and *Halegmōnaþ* (September).

How did the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity unfold in England?

The conversion of Saxons in England began in the 7th century, influenced by the already Christian Jutes of Kent. Missionaries like Birinus evangelized the West Saxons, while the South Saxons were converted under Anglian influence. The East Saxons were initially more resistant, with their conversion being completed later in the 7th century.

What challenges did Christian missionaries face when evangelizing the continental Saxons?

Christian missionaries faced significant opposition from the lower social classes (villagers and peasants) among the continental Saxons, who remained faithful to their pagan beliefs. While the Saxon nobility often supported Christianity, the common people resisted forced baptisms and tithing, leading to social tensions and occasional revolts.

What was Alcuin of York's critique regarding the methods used to convert the Saxons?

Alcuin of York, writing to a friend in 796, criticized the methods used to convert the Saxons, suggesting that if the preaching of Christianity was as forceful as the exacting of tithes or the enforcement of laws, the Saxons might be more receptive to baptismal vows. He implied that the harshness of the conversion process was counterproductive.

How did the Saxon nobility support Christianity and its literature in the 9th century?

In the 9th century, the Saxon nobility became strong proponents of monasticism and Christianity, serving as a defense against Slavic and Nordic paganism. They supported the production of Christian literature in the vernacular Old Saxon language, fostered by influential monasteries like Fulda and Corvey.

What literary works were commissioned to help evangelize the Saxons in the 9th century?

To aid in the evangelization of the Saxons, rulers like Louis the Pious commissioned vernacular literary works. Notable examples include the *Heliand*, an epic poem about the life of Christ set in a Germanic context, and *Genesis*, another epic retelling of biblical events.

What is the origin of the term "Sassenach" and its related terms in Celtic languages?

The term "Sassenach" (Scottish Gaelic) and related words like "Sasanach" (Irish) and "Saeson" (Welsh) are derived from the Latin word *Saxones*. These terms were originally used by Gaelic speakers to refer to the English and the Scots-speaking lowlanders of Scotland, and later evolved to sometimes carry a disparaging or jocular connotation for English people.

How did the name "Saxony" evolve as a toponym over time?

Initially referring to the homeland of the Saxon tribe in northern Germany, the name "Saxony" was later transferred to the lands of the Ascanian family after the division of the original Saxon duchy. Eventually, the name became primarily associated with regions in eastern Germany (modern Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt), leading to a distinction between "Lower Saxony" (the original homeland) and "Upper Saxony."

What is the linguistic relationship between Old English and Old Saxon?

Old English, spoken by the Saxons in England, was linguistically closer to Old Frisian than to Old Saxon spoken on the continent. While Old Saxon dialects became part of the Continental West Germanic continuum, Old English developed separately, though relatedly, in Britain.

According to Elmar Seebold's theory, what linguistic divergence occurred among the early Saxons?

Linguist Elmar Seebold proposed that early continental Saxon society comprised two distinct West Germanic forms. One group, speaking dialects close to Old Frisian and Old English, migrated to Britain, forming the basis of English. The other group, whose dialects were more influenced by neighboring tribes, remained on the continent, eventually developing into the Low Saxon dialects.

What was the role of the *edhilingui*, *frilingi*, and *lazzi* in Saxon society?

These were the three main social castes in Saxon society. The *edhilingui* were the noble elite, likely a conquering warrior class. The *frilingi* were freemen, and the *lazzi* were a lower class, possibly descendants of conquered peoples who owed tribute and oaths of submission to the elite.

What was the *wergild* system among the Saxons, and how did it reflect social hierarchy?

The *wergild* system assigned monetary values to individuals based on their social caste. The *edhilingui* had the highest *wergild*, significantly higher than the *frilingi* and *lazzi*, reflecting a rigid social hierarchy where the noble caste was valued considerably more than the lower castes.

How did Charlemagne's administrative reforms change the Saxon system of governance?

Charlemagne replaced the traditional Saxon system of *Gaue* (provinces) with the Frankish system of counties. He also abolished the annual Saxon council at Marklo, thereby centralizing power and diminishing the political influence of the lower social castes.

What was the significance of the Irminsul pillar to the Saxons?

The Irminsul was a sacred pillar or tree that held religious significance for the Saxons, believed to connect heaven and earth. Charlemagne ordered its destruction in 772 AD as part of his campaign to suppress Saxon paganism.

What evidence suggests the persistence of pagan worship among Saxon peasantry?

Historical accounts indicate that pagan worship, particularly of the goddess Freya, continued among the Saxon peasantry as late as the 12th century. This persistence was often linked to the lower classes' resentment towards the Christianized nobility and Frankish overlords.

How did the Finnish and Estonian languages adopt terms related to "Saxon"?

In Finnish and Estonian, the terms derived from "Saxon" (Finnish: *Saksa*, Estonian: *Saksamaa*) came to refer to Germany as a whole, and the people of German origin (*saksalaiset*, *sakslased*). The Finnish word for scissors, *sakset*, is thought to possibly relate to the seax knife, from which the Saxon name supposedly originates.

What was the historical context for the term "Transylvanian Saxons"?

The term "Transylvanian Saxons" refers to German settlers who migrated to southeastern Transylvania starting in the 12th century. The Romanian word for Saxon, *Sași*, is derived from the same root, reflecting the historical presence of these German settlers in the region.

What was the relationship between the Saxons and the Arnulfings before Charlemagne's conquest?

Before Charlemagne's conquest, the Arnulfings, ancestors of Charlemagne, sought to assert power over neighboring peoples, including the Saxons and Frisians. They pressured these groups to convert to Christianity and integrate into the Frankish sphere of influence.

What happened to the Duchy of Saxony in 1180?

In 1180, the Duchy of Saxony was divided following Duke Henry the Lion's refusal to support Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war in Lombardy. This division marked a significant fragmentation of the original Saxon territory.

What was the role of Saint Suibert in relation to the Saxons?

Saint Suibert, an Anglo-Saxon missionary bishop working in Frisia, was active in an area believed to correspond to the Roman-era Bructeri, who lived near the Lippe river. In the 690s, Bede reported that this region was invaded by pagan Saxons during Suibert's missionary work there.

What was the outcome of the conflict between Charlemagne and Widukind?

The conflict between Widukind, a semi-legendary Saxon hero, and Charlemagne culminated in the long Saxon Wars. Charlemagne ultimately defeated the Saxons, forcing their conversion to Christianity and annexing their territory into the Carolingian domain.

How did the Saxons of Britain become known as Anglo-Saxons?

The settlers who were once called Saxons in Britain became part of a new Old English-speaking nation, commonly referred to as Anglo-Saxons. This term combined the names of the Angles and Saxons, reflecting the migration and integration of various Germanic peoples from the North Sea region into Britain.

What does the term "Old Saxony" signify in historical context?

"Old Saxony" refers to the historical territory of the continental Saxons in northern Germany, between the Rhine and Elbe rivers. Historians use this term, along with "Old Saxons," to distinguish them from the Saxons who migrated to Britain and became known as Anglo-Saxons.

What was the nature of Saxon society before their political unification under Charlemagne?

Before the 8th century and the conflict with Charlemagne, the political history of the continental Saxons is unclear. They reportedly lacked a unified political structure and were governed by regional "satraps" rather than a single king.

What is the meaning of the Old Saxon terms *edhilingui*, *frilingi*, and *lazzi*?

In Old Saxon, *edhilingui* referred to the noble elite, *frilingi* denoted freemen, and *lazzi* represented a lower social class, possibly indentured laborers or descendants of conquered peoples. These terms were later Latinized as *nobiles*, *ingenui*, and *liberti* respectively.

What was the significance of the *Heliand* and *Genesis* in the Christianization of the Saxons?

The *Heliand* and *Genesis* were vernacular literary works commissioned in the 9th century to help evangelize the Saxons. These epics retold biblical stories and the life of Christ in a Germanic context, making Christian teachings more accessible to the Saxon population.

How did the Saxons' relationship with Christianity evolve after Charlemagne's conquest?

While Charlemagne enforced conversion through military means, leading to resentment among some Saxons, his successor Louis the Pious treated them more favorably, fostering loyalty. However, lower classes continued to resist Frankish overlordship and paganism, as seen in the Stellinga revolt in the 840s.

What was the outcome of the Saxon Wars for the Saxons' religious practices?

The Saxon Wars resulted in the enforced conversion of the Saxons to Christianity and the destruction of their pagan symbols, such as the Irminsul. Despite this, pagan practices and beliefs persisted among segments of the population, particularly the lower classes, for centuries.

What is the connection between the Finnish word 'sakset' and the Saxons?

The Finnish word 'sakset,' meaning scissors, is thought to potentially derive from the name of the seax, a single-edged knife or sword used by the Saxons, from which their name is believed to originate.

How did the Saxons of the Bessin region in Normandy interact with Frankish rulers?

The Saxons of the Bessin region near Bayeux were noted for adopting Breton fashion and fighting as allies with the Bretons against Guntram. Later, under Dagobert I, they were employed in campaigns against the Basques. Documents from the 9th century also mention a *pagus* called *Otlinga Saxonia* in this region.

What was the role of the *Ala primum Saxonum*?

The *Ala primum Saxonum* was a Roman military unit composed of Saxons. It existed by 363 AD and was stationed in what is now Lebanon and northern Israel, where it was employed by Emperor Julian against the Persian empire.

What does Bede's description of Saxon governance imply about their political structure before Charlemagne?

Bede described the continental Saxons as having no king but being governed by several "satraps" who were equal in peacetime but drew lots for leadership during war. This suggests a decentralized political system based on regional leaders rather than a unified monarchy.

Saxons Wiki: The Saxon Saga: Echoes of an Ancient People

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Early Origins

Ancient Roots

The Saxons were a confederation of Germanic tribes originating from the region of modern-day northern Germany. Their name is often linked to the "seax," a distinctive single-edged knife used by the early Saxons.

While the exact origins are debated, some scholars suggest a possible mention in Ptolemy's 2nd-century AD *Geographia* as the "Saxones," located north of the Elbe River. However, other manuscripts refer to them as "Axones," leading to scholarly discussion about the accuracy of this early reference.

Coastal Raiders

By the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the term "Saxon" began to appear more definitively in historical records, often referring to coastal raiders who attacked the Roman Empire from regions north of the Rhine River. In this context, "Saxon" functioned similarly to the later term "Viking," denoting seafaring warriors.

These early maritime raiders included groups like the Frisians, Angles, and Jutes, whose territories spanned the North Sea coast. It's proposed that the term "Saxon" initially described a role or tactic (boat-based raiding) rather than a single, unified tribe.

Roman Encounters

Roman sources from the 4th century onwards document Saxon activities. Emperor Constantius Chlorus campaigned against them, and later Emperor Julian the Apostate mentioned them as allies of the rebel Magnentius. The Roman military structure known as the *Litus Saxonicum* ("Saxon Shore") in Britain also points to their presence and impact.

Ammianus Marcellinus described the Saxons as formidable warriors, noting their raids along the Gallic coast and their involvement in conflicts within the Rhine delta. The association with boats and coastal attacks remained a defining characteristic during this period.

Migration & Settlement

Britain's Newcomers

During the 5th century, following the Roman withdrawal from Britain, Saxons, along with Angles and Jutes, migrated to the island. These migrations significantly shaped the cultural and linguistic landscape of Britain.

Early chronicles suggest that Saxon groups were invited as *foederati* (allies) to help defend against Pictish and Scottish raids. However, they eventually revolted, leading to conflict and the gradual establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms across much of England.

Gaulish Presence

Saxon groups also settled and raided in Gaul (modern-day France). Historical fragments mention Saxon communities near the Loire River and in the Bessin region of Normandy. These groups sometimes served as mercenaries or allies for Frankish rulers.

The term "Saxon" in Gaul could refer to distinct groups, including those involved in coastal raids and those integrated into the Frankish military structure. The legacy of these settlements is visible in place names in regions like Normandy.

Continental Saxons & Charlemagne

The Saxon Wars

The continental Saxons, residing in "Old Saxony" between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, maintained their independence until the late 8th century. Their history became intertwined with the expansionist policies of the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne.

The prolonged and brutal "Saxon Wars" (772–804 AD) culminated in Charlemagne's conquest. This campaign involved forced conversions to Christianity, the destruction of pagan symbols like Irminsul, and the deportation of thousands of Saxons.

Integration and Duchy

Following their conquest, the Saxons were incorporated into the Carolingian Empire. Saxony became a recognized "stem duchy," a fundamental administrative unit within the expanding Frankish realm.

Initially resistant to Frankish rule and Christianity, the Saxons eventually integrated, though social tensions persisted between the nobility and the lower classes. Later, Saxon dukes rose to prominence, with Henry I and Otto I becoming Kings and Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire.

Shifting Geography

The original homeland of the Saxons, centered around Lower Saxony, eventually saw its name transferred eastward. Through political developments and the influence of the House of Wettin, the region of Upper Saxony became more prominently known as Saxony, leading to potential confusion about the Saxons' original territory.

Society, Faith, and Language

Social Structure

Early Saxon society was characterized by a rigid caste system, traditionally divided into three main groups: the *edhilingui* (nobility), *frilingi* (freemen), and *lazzi* (servile class, descendants of conquered peoples). This structure was codified in the *Lex Saxonum*, which dictated social interactions, marriage rules, and legal penalties (wergilds).

Annual councils were held at Marklo, where representatives from all castes participated in governance. However, Charlemagne's reforms abolished the old *Gaue* system, replacing it with Frankish counties and diminishing the political power of the lower castes.

Paganism and Conversion

The Saxons initially practiced Germanic paganism, worshipping deities like Woden and Thunor, and observing various seasonal festivals. Their religious practices were often tied to political events, such as the casting of lots for wartime leadership.

The conversion to Christianity, particularly under Charlemagne, was a forceful process. While the nobility often supported missionaries, the lower classes remained resistant to Christianization and Frankish influence for centuries, clinging to their traditional beliefs.

Language and Literature

The Old Saxon language was a West Germanic dialect, distinct from Old English, though related to Old Frisian. It formed part of the broader Continental West Germanic dialect continuum.

During the 9th century, Saxon monasteries became centers of learning, producing significant Christian literature in Old Saxon. Works like the *Heliand* (an epic life of Christ) and *Genesis* were commissioned to aid in the Christianization efforts, utilizing the vernacular to reach the populace.

Linguistic Legacy

Germanic Connections

Old Saxon shared roots with other Germanic languages but evolved distinctly. Linguists note its closer relationship to Old Frisian than to the dialects that would become modern German. The migration of certain Saxon elites to Britain contributed to the formation of Old English.

The linguistic landscape in continental Saxony shifted over time. The departure of the migrating Saxon elite allowed dialects related to Old Low German and other West Germanic groups to become dominant, forming the basis of modern Low Saxon dialects.

Wider Influence

The term "Saxon" became synonymous with "English" in various Celtic languages. Scottish Gaelic *Sassenach*, Irish *Sasanach*, Welsh *Sais*, and Cornish *Sawsnek* all derive from *Saxones*, reflecting the historical impact of Saxon settlement in Britain.

Interestingly, in Finnish (*Saksa*) and Estonian (*Saksamaa*), the word for Germany and Germans originates from the Saxon name, highlighting their perceived prominence in early interactions.

Enduring Impact

Place Names

The name "Saxony" persists in modern Germany, primarily referring to the state of Saxony (Sachsen) and Saxony-Anhalt. However, the original heartland of the Saxon people is largely encompassed by the modern state of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen).

Historical Significance

The Saxons played a pivotal role in the formation of England and influenced the political and cultural development of continental Europe. Their conversion to Christianity and integration into the Frankish Empire marked significant historical transitions.

From formidable raiders to influential settlers and subjects of powerful kingdoms, the Saxons left an indelible mark on European history, language, and identity.

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References

(Springer 2004, p. 54) "In der Tat gewinnt seit zwanzig Jahren die Meinung an Boden, dass es sich um ein und deselbe PersÃ¶nlichkeit gehandelt habe."

Hummer 2005, p. 141, based on Astronomus.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Saxons Wikipedia page

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The Saxon Saga

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Early Origins ⏳

📜 Ancient Roots

🌊 Coastal Raiders

⚔️ Roman Encounters

Migration & Settlement 🚢

🇬🇧 Britain's Newcomers

🇫🇷 Gaulish Presence

Continental Saxons & Charlemagne 👑

⚔️ The Saxon Wars

🏛️ Integration and Duchy

🗺️ Shifting Geography

Society, Faith, and Language 🗣️

⚖️ Social Structure

⛪ Paganism and Conversion

📖 Language and Literature

Linguistic Legacy 🌐

🗣️ Germanic Connections

🌍 Wider Influence

Enduring Impact 🏛️

📍 Place Names

📜 Historical Significance

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Early Origins

Ancient Roots

Coastal Raiders

Roman Encounters

Migration & Settlement

Britain's Newcomers

Gaulish Presence

Continental Saxons & Charlemagne

The Saxon Wars

Integration and Duchy

Shifting Geography

Society, Faith, and Language

Social Structure

Paganism and Conversion

Language and Literature

Linguistic Legacy

Germanic Connections

Wider Influence

Enduring Impact

Place Names

Historical Significance

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