What was the primary duration of the Second Opium War?

The Second Opium War, also known as the Second Anglo-Chinese War or Arrow War, was fought between 8 October 1856 and 24 October 1860, lasting approximately four years and sixteen days.

What were the alternative names for the Second Opium War?

The Second Opium War is also known as the Second Anglo-Chinese War or the Arrow War. These alternative names reflect different aspects of the conflict's origins and participants.

Which major powers were the primary belligerents against the Qing dynasty in the Second Opium War?

The primary belligerents against the Qing dynasty of China were the United Kingdom and France. The conflict was a joint military effort by these two European powers.

What was the outcome of the Second Opium War for the allied forces?

The outcome of the Second Opium War was an allied victory, which led to significant concessions from the Qing dynasty as detailed in the subsequent treaties.

What were the significant territorial changes that resulted from the Second Opium War?

As a result of the war, the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island were ceded to form part of British Hong Kong. Additionally, Outer Manchuria was ceded to Russia through related treaties.

Who were some of the key commanders and leaders for the allied forces during the Second Opium War?

Key commanders and leaders for the allied forces included Queen Victoria, Lord Palmerston, Lord Derby, Michael Seymour, Charles Straubenzee, James Grant for the United Kingdom, and Napoleon III, Rigault de Genouilly, and Charles Montauban for France. The United States and Russia also had representatives like Andrew Hull Foote, Josiah Tattnall III, Alexander II, Alexander Chernyshyov, Alexey Fyodorovich Orlov, and Philipp von Brunnow, though their involvement varied.

Who were the main commanders and leaders for the Qing dynasty during the Second Opium War?

The main commanders and leaders for the Qing dynasty included the Xianfeng Emperor, Prince Gong, Ye Mingchen, and Sengge Rinchen.

What were the approximate troop strengths of the British and French forces during the war?

The British forces had an approximate strength of 13,127 troops, while the French forces numbered around 7,000 troops.

What were the reported casualties and losses for the United Kingdom during the Second Opium War?

The United Kingdom reported 134 killed and 642 wounded, along with the loss of 3 gunboats sunk, 3 gunboats grounded, 1 launch destroyed, and 1 gunboat damaged.

What were the reported casualties and losses for France during the Second Opium War?

France reported over 25 killed and over 146 wounded during the conflict.

What were the reported casualties and losses for the United States during its concurrent conflict?

During its minor concurrent conflict, the United States reported 11 killed and 23 wounded, with 2 sloops and 1 launch damaged.

What were the reported casualties and losses for China during the Second Opium War?

China suffered significant casualties and losses, including 2,100 to 2,801 killed and wounded, 2,100 captured, over 10 forts captured, 736 guns and artillery pieces captured, and 99 to 109 or more war junks captured or destroyed.

What was the central issue over which the Opium Wars were fought?

The Opium Wars, including the Second Opium War, were primarily fought over the right of Western powers, particularly Britain, to import opium to China.

What was the long-term consequence of the Second Opium War for the Qing dynasty regarding the opium trade?

A significant long-term consequence for the Qing dynasty was the forced legalisation of the opium trade, which had been a major point of contention and a source of social and economic problems in China.

How did Chinese officials perceive the conflicts with Western powers after the Second Opium War?

After the Second Opium War, many Chinese officials began to believe that conflicts with Western powers were no longer traditional wars but rather part of a looming national crisis, indicating a shift in their understanding of the threat posed by foreign nations.

Why is the conflict also referred to as the 'Second Opium War'?

The conflict is referred to as the 'Second Opium War' because one of Britain's strategic objectives was to legalize the opium trade in China, building upon the outcomes of the First Opium War.

What is the significance of the name 'Arrow War' for this conflict?

The name 'Arrow War' refers to the cargo ship *Arrow*, whose seizure by Qing officials became the immediate starting point and a key pretext for the conflict.

What treaty concluded the First Opium War in 1842, and what were its key provisions for Britain?

The First Opium War concluded with the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, which granted Britain an indemnity, extraterritoriality for its citizens, the opening of five treaty ports for trade, and the cession of Hong Kong Island.

What British goals remained unfulfilled after the Treaty of Nanking, leading to the Second Opium War?

Despite the Treaty of Nanking, British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations remained largely unfulfilled, leading to continued tensions and ultimately the Second Opium War.

How is the First Opium War viewed in modern Chinese history?

In China, the First Opium War is considered to be the beginning of modern Chinese history, marking a significant turning point in the nation's interactions with foreign powers.

What act of aggression occurred in 1847 that served as a prelude to the Second Opium War?

In 1847, repeated acts of aggression against British subjects led to the Expedition to Canton, where British forces assaulted and captured the forts of the Bocca Tigris, spiking 879 guns.

What was the 'Arrow incident' that served as a catalyst for the Second Opium War?

The 'Arrow incident' involved Chinese marines in Canton seizing the British-registered cargo ship *Arrow* in October 1856 on suspicion of piracy and arresting its Chinese crew members. This event, despite the ship's expired registration, was protested by British authorities as an insult to their flag.

What was the status of the *Arrow*'s British registration at the time of its seizure?

At the time of its detention, the *Arrow* was registered as a British ship and flew the British flag, but its British registration had actually expired.

Who was Harry Parkes, and what demands did he make following the *Arrow* incident?

Harry Parkes was the British consul in Canton. Following the *Arrow* incident, he demanded the immediate release of the crew and an apology for the alleged insult to the British flag.

What immediate military actions did the British take after the *Arrow* incident in October 1856?

On October 23, 1856, the British destroyed four barrier forts, and the next day, they began to bombard the city of Canton, firing one shot every 10 minutes.

What symbolic act occurred when British troops entered Canton on October 29, 1856?

When British troops entered Canton on October 29, 1856, the flag of the United States was planted on the city walls and on the residence of Viceroy Ye Mingchen by U.S. Consul James Keenan, indicating a complex international presence.

What was the outcome of the British bombardment and entry into Canton in late 1856?

After negotiations failed, the British continued to bombard Canton, causing fires and destroying 23 war junks on November 6. British forces then returned to Hong Kong on January 5, 1857, after their initial actions.

How did the British Parliament react to the *Arrow* incident and the military response in Canton in March 1857?

On March 3, 1857, the British House of Commons passed a resolution against the government regarding the *Arrow* incident and the actions in Canton, which led to a general election in April 1857.

What impact did the Indian Mutiny have on British military plans for China in May 1857?

In May 1857, the Indian Mutiny became a serious priority, causing British troops originally destined for China to be diverted to India, temporarily delaying the full-scale British offensive in China.

What was the official reason for France's involvement in the Second Opium War?

France joined the British action against China primarily due to the execution of a French missionary, Auguste Chapdelaine, by Chinese local authorities in Guangxi province, an area not open to foreigners at the time.

Who was Auguste Chapdelaine, and what happened to him?

Auguste Chapdelaine was a French missionary from the Paris Foreign Missions Society who was executed by Chinese local authorities in Guangxi province, an event that served as the official cause for French involvement in the war.

Who led the joint British and French forces that attacked Canton in late 1857?

Admiral Sir Michael Seymour led the joint British and French forces that attacked and occupied Canton in late 1857.

What was the administrative arrangement in Canton after its occupation by the Anglo-French forces?

After occupying Canton, a joint committee of the Alliance was formed, and the Allies left the city governor in his post to maintain order on behalf of the victors, retaining control of the city for nearly four years.

What military action did the coalition take north of Canton in May 1858?

In May 1858, the Anglo-French coalition cruised north and briefly captured the Taku Forts near Tianjin.

Did the United States and Russia provide military aid to the British and French in the Second Opium War?

The United States and Russia sent envoys to Hong Kong to offer military help to the British and French, but ultimately Russia sent no military aid, and the U.S. maintained neutrality in the main conflict.

What concurrent conflict did the U.S. engage in during the Second Opium War?

The U.S. was involved in a minor concurrent conflict during the war, known as the Battle of the Pearl River Forts, which occurred after the Chinese garrison at Canton shelled a United States Navy steamer.

What ultimatum did Harry Parkes deliver to Viceroy Ye Mingchen in December 1857?

In December 1857, Harry Parkes delivered an ultimatum, threatening to bombard Canton if the remaining *Arrow* crew members were not released within 24 hours, and if treaty obligations regarding entry into Canton were not fulfilled.

What was the fate of Viceroy Ye Mingchen after the capture of Canton in January 1858?

After the capture of Canton on January 1, 1858, Viceroy Ye Mingchen was captured and subsequently exiled to Calcutta, India, where he eventually starved himself to death.

What was the 'Esing Bakery incident' in Hong Kong?

The 'Esing Bakery incident' in January 1858 was a possible attempt to poison Hong Kong Governor Sir John Bowring and his family. The baker, charged with lacing bread with arsenic, bungled the attempt by using an excessive amount of poison, causing victims to vomit and thus preventing lethal doses.

When did the first part of the Second Opium War conclude, and what were the key agreements?

The first part of the war concluded in June 1858 with the signing of the four Treaties of Tianjin, which opened 11 more Chinese ports to Western trade.

What were the four major Western powers involved in the Treaties of Tianjin?

The four major Western powers that were parties to the Treaties of Tianjin were Britain, France, Russia, and the United States.

List some of the new Chinese ports opened to foreign trade by the Treaties of Tianjin.

The Treaties of Tianjin opened ten additional Chinese ports for foreign trade, including Niuzhuang, Tamsui, Hankou, and Nanjing.

What new rights were granted to foreigners regarding travel and navigation within China by the Treaties of Tianjin?

The Treaties of Tianjin granted foreigners the right for all vessels, including commercial ships, to navigate freely on the Yangtze River, and the right for foreigners to travel in the internal regions of China, which had previously been prohibited.

What financial indemnities were stipulated in the Treaties of Tianjin for Britain and France?

China was required to pay an indemnity of four million taels of silver to Britain and two million taels of silver to France as part of the Treaties of Tianjin.

What was the purpose of the Treaty of Aigun, signed with Russia in May 1858?

The Treaty of Aigun, signed with Russia on May 28, 1858, aimed to revise the Chinese and Russian border that had been established by the Nerchinsk Treaty in 1689.

What territorial gains did Russia make as a result of the Treaty of Aigun and the later Convention of Peking?

As a result of the Treaty of Aigun, Russia gained the left bank of the Amur River, shifting the border south from the Stanovoy mountains. The later Convention of Peking in 1860 further granted Russia control over a non-freezing area on the Pacific coast.

What significant city did Russia found on the Pacific coast after these territorial gains?

Following its territorial gains on the Pacific coast, Russia founded the city of Vladivostok between 1860 and 1861.

Why did the Xianfeng Emperor order General Sengge Rinchen to reinforce the Taku Forts in June 1858?

The Xianfeng Emperor ordered General Sengge Rinchen to reinforce the Taku Forts in June 1858 because hawkish ministers prevailed upon him to resist Western encroachment shortly after the Qing imperial court agreed to the disadvantageous Treaties of Tianjin.

Describe the events of the Second Battle of Taku Forts in June 1859.

In June 1859, a British naval force attempted to forcibly sail into the Hai River past the Taku Forts. However, low tide, soft mud, and accurate fire from Sengge Rinchen's cannons sank four British gunboats and severely damaged two others, forcing a retreat.

How did American Commodore Josiah Tattnall III intervene during the Second Battle of Taku Forts?

During the Second Battle of Taku Forts, American Commodore Josiah Tattnall III, despite orders to maintain neutrality, provided covering fire to protect the retreating British convoy, famously declaring 'blood is thicker than water'.

Second Opium War Wiki: Echoes of Empire: The Second Opium War and China's Transformation

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Introduction

A Defining Conflict

The Second Opium War, also recognized as the Second Anglo-Chinese War or the Arrow War, represents a critical period in 19th-century global history. Fought between 1856 and 1860, this conflict pitted the combined forces of the United Kingdom and France against the Qing dynasty of China. At its core, the war was a struggle over the right to import opium into China and the broader expansion of Western commercial and diplomatic privileges.

Key Chronology & Outcome

Spanning four years and sixteen days, from October 8, 1856, to October 24, 1860, the war concluded with a decisive Allied victory. This outcome led to a second significant defeat for the Qing dynasty, compelling the forced legalization of the opium trade and further opening China to Western influence. Many Chinese officials began to perceive these conflicts not merely as traditional wars but as symptoms of an impending national crisis.

Conflict Overview:

Aspect	Details
Date	8 October 1856 – 24 October 1860
Location	China
Result	Allied victory
Territorial Changes	Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island ceded to British Hong Kong; Outer Manchuria ceded to Russia.

Naming Conventions

The designation "Second Opium War" highlights a primary British strategic objective: the legalization of the opium trade and the opening of all China to British merchants, alongside exemption from internal transit duties for foreign imports. Conversely, the "Arrow War" refers to the specific incident involving the cargo ship Arrow, which served as the immediate catalyst for the conflict's escalation.

Historical Context

Legacy of the First War

This conflict directly succeeded the First Opium War (1839–1842), which concluded with the Treaty of Nanking. This earlier treaty granted Britain significant concessions, including an indemnity, extraterritoriality for its citizens, the opening of five treaty ports, and the cession of Hong Kong Island. However, these provisions ultimately failed to satisfy Britain's broader objectives for expanded trade and improved diplomatic relations with China, setting the stage for further confrontation.

Western Imperial Ambitions

The mid-1850s were marked by an accelerating pace of Western imperialism. Powers like Britain, France, the United States, and Russia shared common goals: to expand their overseas markets, establish new ports of call, and secure greater influence. Britain, leveraging its "most favoured nation" status, pressed the Qing authorities to renegotiate the Treaty of Nanking to further its interests.

Key British demands for renegotiation included:

Opening all of China to British merchant companies.
Legalizing the opium trade.
Exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties.
Suppressing piracy.
Regulating the coolie trade.
Permission for a British ambassador to reside in Beijing.
Ensuring the English-language version of all treaties took precedence over the Chinese version.

China's Modern Dawn

In China, the First Opium War is widely regarded as the genesis of modern Chinese history, marking the beginning of a period often referred to as the "century of humiliation." The subsequent Second Opium War further intensified this perception, highlighting the Qing dynasty's vulnerability to external pressures and the urgent need for internal reform.

Ignition Points

The Arrow Incident (1856)

The immediate spark for the war was the seizure of the British-registered cargo ship Arrow by Qing officials in Canton on October 8, 1856. Twelve of its fourteen Chinese crew members were arrested on suspicion of piracy. Despite the ship's British registration having expired and its prior use by pirates, the British consul, Harry Parkes, vehemently protested the alleged insult to the British flag. Viceroy Ye Mingchen released nine crew members but refused to release the remaining three, escalating the diplomatic crisis.

French Missionary's Execution

France's entry into the conflict was primarily motivated by the execution of Auguste Chapdelaine, a French missionary from the Paris Foreign Missions Society, by Chinese local authorities in Guangxi province. This region was not open to foreigners at the time, and the incident provided France with a justification to join the British in seeking redress from China, as articulated by their envoy, Baron Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gros.

First Battle of Canton (1856)

Following the Arrow incident, the British initiated military action. On October 23, 1856, British forces destroyed four barrier forts. A demand for entry into Canton was made, and upon refusal, the British began bombarding the city on October 26. The Royal Navy breached the city walls on October 29, and troops entered Canton. Despite the U.S. Consul James Keenan planting the American flag on Ye Mingchen's residence, negotiations failed, leading to continued bombardment and the destruction of 23 war junks. The British eventually returned to Hong Kong on January 5, 1857.

American and Russian Involvement

Both the United States and Russia initially offered military assistance to the British and French. While Russia ultimately provided no military aid, the U.S. engaged in a minor, concurrent conflict in 1856. After a U.S. Navy steamer was shelled by the Chinese garrison at Canton, the U.S. Navy retaliated in the Battle of the Pearl River Forts, bombarding and capturing the river forts. Subsequently, an agreement for U.S. neutrality in the Second Opium War was signed with the Chinese government.

Interlude: Diplomatic Engagements

Treaties of Tianjin (1858)

The initial phase of the war concluded in June 1858 with the signing of the four Treaties of Tianjin, involving Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. These treaties aimed to expand Western access and privileges in China. Despite their signing, the Qing government initially refused to ratify them, leading to a resumption of hostilities.

The major points stipulated in the Treaties of Tianjin included:

The right for Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. to establish diplomatic legations in Beijing, a city previously closed to foreign diplomatic presence.
The opening of eleven additional Chinese ports for foreign trade, including significant locations such as Niuzhuang, Tamsui, Hankou, and Nanjing.
The right for all foreign vessels, including commercial ships, to navigate freely on the Yangtze River.
Permission for foreigners to travel within the internal regions of China, a privilege previously prohibited.
An indemnity payment from China of four million taels of silver to Britain and two million to France.

Treaty of Aigun (1858)

Concurrently, on May 28, 1858, a separate Treaty of Aigun was signed between China and Russia. This agreement significantly revised the existing border between the two empires, which had been established by the Nerchinsk Treaty in 1689. Russia gained control over the left bank of the Amur River, effectively shifting the border south from the Stanovoy mountains. This territorial acquisition was further solidified by the later Convention of Peking in 1860, which granted Russia a non-freezing port on the Pacific coast, leading to the founding of Vladivostok.

The Second Campaign (1858-1860)

Battles of Taku Forts

The Qing Emperor Xianfeng's refusal to ratify the Treaties of Tianjin led to renewed hostilities, particularly around the strategically vital Taku Forts near Tianjin. General Sengge Rinchen reinforced these forts with artillery and Mongol cavalry.

First Battle (May 1858): British forces initially succeeded in capturing the forts, but they were subsequently returned to Qing control under the peace treaty.
Second Battle (June 1859): A British naval force, escorting Anglo-French envoys, attempted to force passage up the Hai River. Despite efforts to clear obstacles, low tide, soft mud, and accurate Qing cannon fire resulted in a significant British defeat, sinking four gunboats and damaging two others. American Commodore Josiah Tattnall III famously provided covering fire for the retreating British, declaring "blood is thicker than water."
Third Battle (Summer 1860): Lord Elgin returned with a formidable Anglo-French force (11,000 British, 6,700 French troops). After capturing Yantai and Dalian, they landed near Beitang and, after three weeks, successfully captured the Taku Forts on August 21. Chinese laborers, referred to as "coolies," played a crucial, albeit often overlooked, role in supporting the Allied forces during this assault.

The Burning of the Old Summer Palace

Following the capture of Tianjin and the arrest and torture of British and French officers, including Harry Parkes, Lord Elgin ordered a punitive measure. After a decisive victory at Baliqiao (Eight Mile Bridge) on September 21, where Sengge Rinchen's Mongol cavalry was annihilated, Anglo-French forces advanced to Beijing. The Xianfeng Emperor fled, leaving Prince Gong to negotiate. To exact revenge for the mistreatment of prisoners and to deter future such actions, Lord Elgin ordered the destruction of the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan) on October 18. The French forces declined to participate in this act. The razing of the palace, renowned for its valuable artwork and imperial property, took two days, with many accounts extending it to three days and nights, leaving behind iconic ruins.

Aftermath & Legacy

The Convention of Peking (1860)

On October 24, 1860, Prince Gong, acting on behalf of the fleeing Emperor, conceded to the Allied demands by signing the Convention of Peking. This treaty formally ratified the Treaties of Tianjin and imposed further significant concessions on the Qing Empire. Key outcomes included the permanent establishment of diplomatic presences in Beijing for Britain, France, and Russia, a concession the Qing had long resisted as it implied equality with European powers.

The Convention of Peking's content included:

Formal ratification of the Treaty of Tianjin.
Opening Tianjin as a designated trade port.
Cession of the No.1 District of Kowloon (south of present-day Boundary Street) to Britain, expanding British Hong Kong.
Establishment of freedom of religion in China, granting Christians civil rights, including property ownership and the right to evangelize.
Permission for British ships to transport indentured Chinese laborers ("coolies") to the Americas.
Increased indemnity payments to Britain and France, each receiving 8 million taels of silver.
Legalization of the opium trade throughout China.

Additionally, a "Supplementary Treaty of Peking," forced upon the Qing government by Ignatiev, ceded the Maritime Provinces east of the Ussuri River (part of Outer Manchuria) to Russia, leading to the founding of Vladivostok.

Qing Humiliation and Reform

The Qing army's defeat by a numerically smaller Anglo-French force, coupled with the Emperor's flight and the destruction of the Summer Palace, delivered a profound blow to the Qing Empire's prestige and authority. This period is often cited as a stark demonstration of China's vulnerability to Western military and diplomatic pressure. In response, a major modernization initiative known as the Self-Strengthening Movement was initiated, leading to various institutional reforms aimed at bolstering China's capabilities.

Opposition to the Opium Trade

The opium trade, a central issue in both Opium Wars, faced intense opposition even within Britain. William Ewart Gladstone, who would later become Prime Minister, vehemently condemned it as "most infamous and atrocious," particularly the trade between China and British India. He fiercely opposed both Opium Wars, denouncing British violence against the Chinese and expressing "dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China." His personal experiences, including the effects of opium on his sister Helen, fueled his strong moral stance against the trade.

Recognitions

Campaign Medals

Both the British and French governments issued campaign medals to commemorate the service of their forces during the Second Opium War. These medals served as tangible recognitions of participation and valor in the distant Chinese campaigns.

British: The Second China War Medal, 1857-60. This medal featured various clasps to denote participation in specific engagements, including:
- China 1842
- Fatshan 1857
- Canton 1857
- Taku Forts 1858
- Taku Forts 1860
- Peking 1860
French: The Commemorative Medal of the 1860 China Expedition (Médaille de la Campagne de Chine, 1861).

Victoria Cross Recipients

Seven awards of the Victoria Cross, Britain's highest military decoration for valor, were bestowed for gallantry demonstrated during the Second Opium War. All these awards were specifically for actions on August 21, 1860, by soldiers of the 44th Regiment of Foot and the 67th Regiment of Foot during the Battle of Taku Forts (1860).

Participating Forces

British and Empire Regiments

A diverse array of British and Empire forces participated in the Second Opium War, reflecting the global reach of the British Empire. These included cavalry, infantry, artillery, and engineering units from across the British Isles and India.

Cavalry Brigade:

1st King's Dragoon Guards
Probyn's Sikh Horse (5th Horse – Pakistan)
Fane's Mahratta Cavalry (19th Lancers – Pakistan)

Infantry:

1st Regiment of Foot (Scots – 2nd Battalion)
2nd Regiment of Foot (Queen's)
3rd Regiment of Foot (Buffs)
8th Regiment of Punjab Infantry (Punjab Regiment – 6th Battalion – Pakistan)
15th Ludhiana Sikhs (Sikh Regiment – 2nd Battalion – India)
19th Punjaub Infantry (Punjab Regiment – 5th Battalion – Pakistan)
23rd Punjab Pioneers (Sikh Light Infantry – India)
31st Regiment of Foot (Huntingdonshire)
44th Regiment of Foot (East Essex)
60th Regiment of Foot (King's Royal Rifles)
67th Regiment of Foot (South Hampshire)
99th Regiment of Foot (Lanarkshire)
Royal Marines

Artillery:

Royal Artillery

Engineers:

Royal Engineers, no. 8 company
Madras Sappers and Miners (Indian Army Corps of Engineers)

French and US Forces

France contributed significant military assets to the Allied effort, while the United States, though officially neutral in the main conflict, had its own naval presence and engagements in the region.

French:

Cavalry: Spahis
Infantry:
- 101e Régiment d'Infanterie
- 102e Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne

United States:

Naval: USS San Jacinto

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References

Frontier and Overseas Expeditions from India. Volume 6. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing. 1911. p. 446.

Wolseley, G. J. (1862). Narrative of the War with China in 1860. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts. p. 1.

Rallings, Colin; Thrasher, Michael, eds. (2000), British Electoral Facts 1832â1999, Ashgate

John Thomson 1837â1921, "Chap on Hong Kong", Illustrations of China and Its People (London, 1873â1874)

E. W. R. Lumby, "Lord Elgin and the Burning of the Summer Palace." History Today (July 1960) 10#7 pp 479â480.

M'Ghee, Robert. (1862). How we got to Pekin: A Narrative of the Campaign in China of 1860, pp. 202â216.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Second Opium War Wikipedia page

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This is not professional historical or political advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for rigorous academic research, consultation with professional historians, or expert analysis of geopolitical events. Always refer to primary sources, peer-reviewed academic literature, and consult with qualified experts for in-depth understanding and specific research needs. Never disregard professional academic guidance because of something you have read on this website.

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Echoes of Empire: The Second Opium War

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction ℹ️

⚔️ A Defining Conflict

🗓️ Key Chronology & Outcome

Conflict Overview:

📜 Naming Conventions

Historical Context 🕰️

🔗 Legacy of the First War

📈 Western Imperial Ambitions

🇨🇳 China's Modern Dawn

Ignition Points 💥

🚢 The Arrow Incident (1856)

🇫🇷 French Missionary's Execution

💣 First Battle of Canton (1856)

🇺🇸🇷🇺 American and Russian Involvement

Interlude: Diplomatic Engagements ✍️

🤝 Treaties of Tianjin (1858)

🇷🇺🇨🇳 Treaty of Aigun (1858)

The Second Campaign (1858-1860) 🛡️

🏰 Battles of Taku Forts

🔥 The Burning of the Old Summer Palace

Aftermath & Legacy 🌍

✍️ The Convention of Peking (1860)

📉 Qing Humiliation and Reform

🗣️ Opposition to the Opium Trade

Recognitions 🏅

🎖️ Campaign Medals

🏆 Victoria Cross Recipients

Participating Forces 💂

🇬🇧🇮🇳 British and Empire Regiments

Cavalry Brigade:

Infantry:

Artillery:

Engineers:

🇫🇷🇺🇸 French and US Forces

French:

United States:

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

A Defining Conflict

Key Chronology & Outcome

Naming Conventions

Historical Context

Legacy of the First War

Western Imperial Ambitions

China's Modern Dawn

Ignition Points

The Arrow Incident (1856)

French Missionary's Execution

First Battle of Canton (1856)

American and Russian Involvement

Interlude: Diplomatic Engagements

Treaties of Tianjin (1858)

Treaty of Aigun (1858)

The Second Campaign (1858-1860)

Battles of Taku Forts

The Burning of the Old Summer Palace

Aftermath & Legacy

The Convention of Peking (1860)

Qing Humiliation and Reform

Opposition to the Opium Trade

Recognitions

Campaign Medals

Victoria Cross Recipients

Participating Forces

British and Empire Regiments

French and US Forces

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice