What were the primary names used to refer to the state founded by Liu Bei during the Three Kingdoms period?

The state founded by Liu Bei was originally named "Han" ( 漢 ). However, to distinguish it from other historical states named "Han" and due to its geographical location, it became known by several other names. These include "Shu Han" ( 蜀漢 ), "Ji Han" ( 季漢 ) meaning "Junior Han", and often simply "Shu" ( 蜀 ).

During what years did the state of Shu Han exist?

Shu Han existed as a dynastic state of China from 221 to 263 CE.

What historical period is Shu Han associated with, and what were the other major competing states?

Shu Han was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China during the Three Kingdoms period. The other two major states were Cao Wei and Eastern Wu.

What geographical region formed the core territory of Shu Han?

Shu Han was based in the area historically known as "Shu," which encompassed present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, and northern Guangxi. This region was named after the ancient kingdom of Shu.

Why did Liu Bei name his state "Han"?

Liu Bei, the founder of Shu Han, named his state "Han" because he considered it a legitimate rump state of the Han dynasty and believed it was the rightful successor to the Han throne.

How did the name "Shu" become associated with Liu Bei's state?

The prefix "Shu" was initially used by the rival state of Cao Wei to delegitimize Shu Han's claims to orthodox succession. Later, the historian Chen Shou also used the prefix "Shu" in his historical writings, such as the *Records of the Three Kingdoms*, to differentiate Liu Bei's state from other historical states named "Han".

Who was the founder of Shu Han, and what was his imperial title?

The founder of Shu Han was Liu Bei, posthumously known as Emperor Zhaolie. He proclaimed himself "Emperor of Han" in 221 CE, viewing his state as a continuation of the Han dynasty.

What were the key events leading to Liu Bei's establishment of Shu Han?

Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Liu Bei gathered followers and, guided by Zhuge Liang's Longzhong Plan, conquered parts of Jing Province (208-209 CE), took Yi Province from Liu Zhang (212-214 CE), and captured Hanzhong from Cao Cao (219 CE). After securing Hanzhong, he declared himself King of Hanzhong before proclaiming himself Emperor of Han in 221 CE.

What led to the breakdown of the alliance between Liu Bei and Sun Quan?

In 219 CE, Sun Quan broke the alliance by sending his general Lü Meng to invade Jing Province, which Liu Bei had previously controlled. Guan Yu, the general guarding Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quan's forces.

What was the significance of the Battle of Xiaoting for Liu Bei's reign?

The Battle of Xiaoting, fought in 222 CE, was a major defeat for Liu Bei. He launched the campaign to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, but suffered a crushing loss against Sun Quan's general Lu Xun. Liu Bei survived but retreated and died a year later, significantly weakening Shu Han.

Who succeeded Liu Bei as the ruler of Shu Han, and what was his age?

Liu Shan succeeded his father, Liu Bei, as the ruler of Shu Han. He was only 16 years old at the time, making him the youngest of the Three Kingdoms' rulers.

What was the geopolitical situation of Shu Han when Liu Shan ascended the throne?

Upon Liu Shan's succession, Shu Han was the weakest of the three major powers. It had lost its territories in Jing Province to Wu, controlled only the western lands of Yi Province, and faced the much larger state of Wei to the north. Its limited population and resources restricted its ability to launch large-scale campaigns.

What role did Zhuge Liang play during Liu Shan's reign?

Zhuge Liang was appointed as a regent by Liu Bei and served as the de facto head of the Shu government throughout Liu Shan's reign. He was responsible for most of Shu's policies, including advocating for peace with Wu and launching military campaigns.

What was Zhuge Liang's strategy regarding the state of Wu?

Zhuge Liang pursued a policy of peace and reaffirmed the alliance with Wu. This was crucial for Shu's survival, as it allowed Shu to focus its resources against the stronger state of Wei.

What was the purpose and outcome of Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign in 225 CE?

In 225 CE, Zhuge Liang launched a campaign into the Nanzhong region to quell local rebellions and counter the growing influence of the Nanman people. This campaign helped strengthen Shu Han's authority in the southern territories.

What was Zhuge Liang's foreign policy towards Cao Wei, and what were the Northern Expeditions?

Zhuge Liang believed an aggressive foreign policy towards Cao Wei was critical for Shu's survival. Between 228 and 234 CE, he launched five military campaigns, known as the Northern Expeditions, aiming to capture strategic cities like Chang'an and threaten Wei's capital, Luoyang. While these expeditions gained some territory and officers like Jiang Wei, they ultimately failed to achieve significant lasting gains.

Who succeeded Zhuge Liang as the head of the Shu government, and what was the state of Shu's military actions?

After Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu government was led by figures like Jiang Wan and Fei Yi. Shu temporarily ceased its aggressive campaigns against Wei. Later, Jiang Wei resumed military campaigns against Wei between 247 and 262 CE, continuing Zhuge Liang's legacy, but these also failed to yield significant territorial gains.

What significant event occurred in 244 CE involving Cao Wei and Shu?

In 244 CE, the Wei regent Cao Shuang launched an invasion of Hanzhong. Despite being outnumbered, the Shu forces achieved a victory at the Battle of Xingshi, repelling the Wei invasion.

Who were the main Wei generals responsible for the final conquest of Shu Han in 263 CE?

The armies that attacked Shu in 263 CE were led by the Wei generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui.

What factors contributed to Shu Han's vulnerability leading to its fall?

Shu Han had been significantly weakened and exhausted by Jiang Wei's numerous military campaigns against Wei. This internal strain made the state vulnerable when Deng Ai and Zhong Hui launched their invasion in 263 CE.

What happened to Liu Shan after the fall of Shu?

After Shu's capital, Chengdu, was conquered and Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai, he was taken to Luoyang. There, he met with Sima Zhao and was granted the title "Duke of Anle." He lived a comfortable life in Luoyang until his death.

What attempts were made to revive Shu Han after its conquest?

Following the surrender of Liu Shan, the Shu general Jiang Wei attempted to incite conflict between the Wei generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui. Zhong Hui eventually captured Deng Ai and rebelled against Sima Zhao, but this revolt was suppressed, leading to the deaths of Jiang Wei, Zhong Hui, and Deng Ai, and ending any hope of reviving Shu.

Beyond warfare, what economic activities were undertaken by Shu Han?

During peacetime, Shu Han initiated significant irrigation and road-building projects. These public works aimed to improve the region's economy and infrastructure, some of which, like the Zipingpu Dam near Chengdu, are still in use today. These projects also promoted trade with the neighboring state of Eastern Wu.

What were the main administrative divisions within Shu Han's territory, particularly in Yi Province?

Shu Han's territory included Yi Province, which was divided into several commanderies. Major commanderies within Yi Province mentioned are Shu, Zitong, Guanghan, Han, Wenshan, Ba, Baxi, Badong, Fuling, Jianwei, Jiangyang, and Hanjia. Each commandery was further subdivided into counties.

What territories did Shu Han conquer from the state of Wei?

Shu Han managed to conquer territories from Wei, primarily the Hanzhong, Wudu, and Yinping commanderies. These regions were strategically important and added to Shu's resource base, though they were later lost.

What regions constituted the Nanzhong area controlled by Shu Han?

The Nanzhong region, which Shu Han controlled and campaigned in, included commanderies such as Shushi, Yuexi, Zangke, Yunnan, Xinggu, Jianning, and Yongchang. These areas were located in the southern parts of Shu's territory.

Who were the two emperors who officially ruled Shu Han?

The two emperors who officially ruled Shu Han were Liu Bei (Emperor Zhaolie) from 221 to 223 CE, and his son Liu Shan (Emperor Xiaohuai) from 223 to 263 CE.

What were the era names used during Liu Bei's reign as Emperor of Shu Han?

During Liu Bei's reign, the era name used was Zhangwu, which spanned from 221 to 223 CE.

What were the era names used during Liu Shan's reign as Emperor of Shu Han?

Liu Shan's reign saw the use of multiple era names: Jianxing (223–237 CE), Yanxi (238–257 CE), Jingyao (258–263 CE), and Yanxing (263 CE).

How was Liu Bei referred to in some historical texts?

In some historical texts, Liu Bei is referred to as the "Late Emperor" ( 先帝 ).

What posthumous titles were granted to Liu Shan, and by whom?

After his death, Liu Shan was posthumously granted the title "Duke Si of Anle" ( 安樂思公 ) by the Jin dynasty. Later, Liu Yuan, the founder of the Han-Zhao state, posthumously honored him as "Emperor Xiaohuai" ( 孝懷皇帝 ).

How is Liu Shan referred to in some historical texts besides his official titles?

In some historical texts, Liu Shan is referred to as the "Later Lord" ( 後主 ).

What does the image captioned 'The territories of Shu Han (in light pink), as of 262 A.D.' illustrate?

The image in the source material depicts the geographical extent of the Shu Han state in light pink, as it was in the year 262 A.D., illustrating its territorial boundaries shortly before its fall.

What does the image captioned 'A Qing dynasty illustration of a battle between Wei and Shu at the banks of the Wei River' represent?

This image, created during the Qing dynasty, visually represents the frequent conflicts that occurred between the states of Wei and Shu during the Three Kingdoms period, specifically depicting a battle near the Wei River.

What does the image captioned 'Pottery musician, Shu, Three Kingdoms' signify?

The image of a pottery musician from the Shu state, dating to the Three Kingdoms period, provides a tangible artifact representing the culture and artistry of Shu Han.

What were the common languages spoken in Shu Han?

The common languages spoken in Shu Han included Ba–Shu Chinese and Eastern Han Chinese.

What religions were practiced in Shu Han?

The primary religions practiced in Shu Han included Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese folk religion.

What currency was used in Shu Han?

Shu Han used ancient Chinese coinage, including Chinese cash.

What historical era preceded Shu Han, and what succeeded it?

Shu Han emerged from the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty and was preceded by the Eastern Han period. After Shu Han's fall in 263 CE, its territory was incorporated into the state of Cao Wei, which itself was later succeeded by the Jin dynasty.

What was the population of Shu Han according to the provided data?

According to the provided data, Shu Han had a population of 900,000 in 221 CE and 1,082,000 in 263 CE.

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Understanding Shu Han

A Dynasty's Claim

Shu Han (221–263 AD), often referred to simply as Shu, was a dynastic state that emerged during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It was one of three major powers competing for dominion over China, alongside Cao Wei and Eastern Wu. Its territorial base was primarily located in the region historically known as "Shu," encompassing modern-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, and northern Guangxi.

Legitimacy and Naming

Founded by Liu Bei, a distant relative of the Han imperial clan, Shu Han's name reflected its founder's ambition to restore the Han dynasty. Liu Bei proclaimed himself Emperor of Han, viewing his state as a legitimate continuation rather than a new dynasty. The prefix "Shu" was later appended by rival states, notably Cao Wei, to delegitimize Shu Han's claims. Historians, including Chen Shou in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, adopted this prefix to distinguish it from other states named "Han" throughout Chinese history.

Geographical Context

The core territory of Shu Han was historically known as the ancient kingdom of Shu. This region, rich in resources and naturally defensible due to its mountainous terrain, provided a strategic advantage. Its geographical position allowed it to serve as a vital bastion during the period's intense political and military conflicts.

Historical Trajectory

Genesis and Foundation

Emerging from the chaos of the late Eastern Han dynasty, Liu Bei, guided by the strategic insights of his advisor Zhuge Liang and the Longzhong Plan, consolidated power. He secured key territories in Jing Province (modern Hubei and Hunan) and Yi Province (modern Sichuan and Chongqing) between 208 and 214 AD. His victory over Cao Cao for Hanzhong in 219 AD solidified his claim as King of Hanzhong, setting the stage for his imperial proclamation.

Liu Bei's Reign and Setbacks

Liu Bei's reign as emperor was brief, marked by a critical conflict with his former ally, Sun Quan. The loss of Jing Province to Sun Quan's forces in 219 AD, following the execution of Guan Yu, significantly weakened Shu's strategic position. Liu Bei's subsequent campaign against Wu, culminating in the disastrous Battle of Xiaoting in 222 AD, led to a severe military defeat and his eventual death in 223 AD.

Liu Shan's Regency

Upon Liu Bei's death, his young son Liu Shan ascended the throne, with Zhuge Liang and Li Yan appointed as regents. Shu Han, already the weakest of the three states, faced significant resource and manpower limitations. Zhuge Liang focused on stabilizing the state, reaffirming the alliance with Eastern Wu, and launching campaigns into Nanzhong (225 AD) to quell rebellions and secure the southern regions. He also initiated a series of ambitious, though ultimately unsuccessful, Northern Expeditions against Cao Wei between 228 and 234 AD, aiming to reclaim the Han heartland.

Decline and Fall

Following Zhuge Liang's death, leadership transitioned to figures like Jiang Wan, Fei Yi, and Jiang Wei. While Shu experienced a temporary period of stability and even military successes, such as the Battle of Xingshi against Cao Wei in 244 AD, its resources remained strained. Jiang Wei continued the Northern Expeditions, but without decisive gains. In 263 AD, Cao Wei launched a decisive invasion, leading to the fall of Shu Han's capital, Chengdu, and Liu Shan's surrender. Although a brief rebellion by Zhong Hui and Deng Ai occurred, Shu Han ultimately ceased to exist as an independent state.

Economic Foundations

Infrastructure and Development

Beyond its military endeavors, Shu Han actively pursued economic development. During periods of peace, significant investments were made in infrastructure projects, including irrigation systems and road construction. These initiatives were crucial for improving the region's agricultural output and facilitating trade, particularly with the neighboring state of Eastern Wu.

The strategic importance of these public works cannot be overstated. For instance, the Zipingpu Dam, still extant near Chengdu, exemplifies the state's commitment to enhancing agricultural productivity and managing water resources. These developments contributed significantly to the economic vitality of southwestern China and laid groundwork for future prosperity in the region.

Trade and Resources

Shu's economy benefited from its relatively abundant natural resources and its strategic location. Trade networks were established, fostering economic exchange with other regions. The state's ability to sustain itself and field armies, despite its smaller population compared to Cao Wei, was a testament to its effective economic management and the productivity of its core territories.

Territorial Holdings

Shu Han's administrative structure was organized into commanderies and counties. The following tables detail the primary territories under its control, reflecting its geographical extent.

Yi Province

The heartland of Shu Han, Yi Province, was a region of significant strategic and economic importance.

Yi Province (益州)
Commandery	Counties
Shu (蜀)	Chengdu (成都), Fan (繁), Jiangyuan (江原), Linqiong (臨邛), Pi (郫)
Zitong (梓潼)	Zitong (梓潼), Fu (涪), Hande (漢德), Hanshou (漢壽), Boshui (白水)
Guanghan (廣漢)	Luo (雒), Shifang (什邡), Mianzhu (綿竹), Xindu (新都), Yangquan (陽泉)
Han (漢)	Qi (?, possibly 郫), Deyang (德陽), Wucheng (武城), Guanghan (廣漢)
Wenshan (汶山)	Wenshan (汶山), Jiandi (?, possibly 汶江), Du'an (都安), Miansi (?, possibly 蠶叢), Pingkang (?, possibly 廣漢), Canling (?, possibly 蠶陵), Guangrou (?, possibly 廣柔), Boma (?, possibly 白馬)
Ba (巴)	Jiangzhou (江州), Dianjiang (?, possibly 墊江), Linjiang (?, possibly 臨江), Zhi (?, possibly 宕渠)
Baxi (巴西)	Langzhong (閬中), Xichong (state) (西充國), Nanchong (state) (南充國), Hanchang (漢昌), Xuanhan (宣漢), Anhan (安漢), Dangqu (?, possibly 宕渠)
Badong (巴東)	Yong'an (Yufu) (永安/魚復), Quren (?, possibly 朐忍), Yangqu (?, possibly 陽泉), Beijing (?, possibly 北井), Handan (?, possibly 漢丹), Wu (?, possibly 巫)
Fuling (涪陵)	Hanfu (?, possibly 涪), Fuling (涪陵), Hanping (?, possibly 漢平), Hanjia (?, possibly 漢嘉), Wanning (?, possibly 萬寧)
Jianwei (犍為)	Wuyang (武陽), Nan'an (南安), Bodao (?, possibly 郪道), Zizhong (?, possibly 資中), Niubing (?, possibly 牛鞞)
Jiangyang (江陽)	Jiangyang (江陽), Fu (?, possibly 符), Han'an (?, possibly 漢安)
Hanjia (漢嘉)	Hanjia (漢嘉), Xi (?, possibly 徙), Yandao (?, possibly 鹽道), Maoniu (?, possibly 旄牛)

Territories Gained from Wei

Shu Han also managed to capture territories from Cao Wei during its campaigns.

Territories conquered by Shu from Wei
Commandery	Counties
Hanzhong (漢中)	Nanzheng (南鄭), Baozhong (?, possibly 褒中), Mianyang (?, possibly 沔陽), Chenggu (?, possibly 成固), Nanxiang (?, possibly 南鄉)
Wudu (武都)	Xiabian (?, possibly 下辨), Hechi (?, possibly 河池), Ju (?, possibly 沮), Wudu (武都), Gudao (?, possibly 故道), Qiangdao (?, possibly 羌道)
Yinping (陰平)	Yinping (陰平), Pingguang (?, possibly 平廣)

Nanzhong Region

Following Zhuge Liang's southern campaign, the Nanzhong region was brought under Shu Han's influence and administration.

Nanzhong (南中)
Commandery	Counties
Shushi (朱提)	Shushi (朱提), Nanguang (?, possibly 南廣), Hanyang (?, possibly 漢陽), Nanchang (?, possibly 南昌), Tanglang (?, possibly 堂狼)
Yuexi (越巂)	Huiwu (?, possibly 邛都), Qiongdu (?, possibly 邛都), Beishui (?, possibly 卑水), Dingzha (?, possibly 定牂), Taideng (?, possibly 臺登), Anshang (?, possibly 安上), Xindao (?, possibly 新道), Qianjie (?, possibly 潛街), Sanfeng (?, possibly 三縫), Suqi (?, possibly 蘇祁), Chan (?, possibly 闡)
Zangke (牂牁)	Qielan (?, possibly 且蘭), Tanzhi (?, possibly 談指), Yelang (?, possibly 夜郎), Wulian (?, possibly 毋斂), Bi (?, possibly 弊), Pingyi (?, possibly 平夷), Guangtan (?, possibly 廣談)
Yunnan (雲南)	Yunnan (雲南), Longdong (?, possibly 滇東), Qingling (?, possibly 青蛉), Gufu (?, possibly 姑復), Xielong (?, possibly 謝龍), Yeyu (?, possibly 葉榆), Suijiu (?, possibly 遂久)
Xinggu (興古)	Juting (?, possibly 句町), Wanwen (?, possibly 滇文), Louwo (?, possibly 漏卧), Bengu (?, possibly 贲古), Hanxing (?, possibly 漢興), Jincheng (?, possibly 晉誠), Xifeng (?, possibly 西豐), Xisui (?, possibly 西隨), Duofeng (?, possibly 多封)
Jianning (建寧)	Wei (?, possibly 駰), Cun (Mayi) (存/馬邑), Mudan (?, possibly 牡丹), Tonglai (?, possibly 同勞), Muma (?, possibly 毋謀), Guchang (?, possibly 姑且), Lianran (?, possibly 連然), Qinzang (?, possibly 秦藏), Shuangbai (?, possibly 雙柏), Yuyuan (?, possibly 俞元), Xiuyun (?, possibly 修雲), Dianchi (?, possibly 滇池), Tonglao (?, possibly 同勞), Tongjing (?, possibly 同井), Shengxiu (?, possibly 晟休), Jianling (?, possibly 犍陵)
Yongchang (永昌)	Buwei (?, possibly 不韋), Yongshou (?, possibly 永壽), Bisu (?, possibly 苴), Nanfu (?, possibly 南富), Suitang (?, possibly 遂唐), Ailao (?, possibly 哀牢), Bonan (?, possibly 滇南)

Rulers of Shu Han

The state of Shu Han was ruled by two emperors during its existence.

Emperors

**Shu Han Rulers**
Temple Name	Posthumous Name	Family Name and Personal Name	Reign	Era Names
Liezu (烈祖)	Emperor Zhaolie (昭烈皇帝)	Liu Bei (劉備)	221–223	Zhangwu (章武) (221–223)
(N/A)	Emperor Xiaohuai (孝懷皇帝)	Liu Shan (劉禪)	223–263	Jianxing (223–237) Yanxi (238–257) Jingyao (258–263) Yanxing (263)

Note: Liu Shan was posthumously honored by various successor states.

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References

Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i. 157

A full list of references for this article are available at the Shu Han Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Historical Context and Accuracy

This document has been generated by an AI, drawing upon publicly available historical data. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, historical interpretations can vary, and the information presented here is intended for educational and informational purposes only.

This is not a substitute for scholarly research. The content reflects a specific interpretation of historical events and figures. For rigorous academic study, consultation of primary sources and peer-reviewed historical analyses is strongly recommended. The creators of this page are not responsible for any inaccuracies, omissions, or interpretations derived from this content.

Shu Han: The Crimson Realm

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Understanding Shu Han 👑

🇨🇳 A Dynasty's Claim

⚖️ Legitimacy and Naming

🗺️ Geographical Context

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🌱 Genesis and Foundation

⚔️ Liu Bei's Reign and Setbacks

🏛️ Liu Shan's Regency

📉 Decline and Fall

Economic Foundations 💰

🏗️ Infrastructure and Development

📈 Trade and Resources

Territorial Holdings 🗺️

📍 Yi Province

⚔️ Territories Gained from Wei

🏞️ Nanzhong Region

Rulers of Shu Han 👑

👑 Emperors

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Historical Context and Accuracy

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Understanding Shu Han

A Dynasty's Claim

Legitimacy and Naming

Geographical Context

Historical Trajectory

Genesis and Foundation

Liu Bei's Reign and Setbacks

Liu Shan's Regency

Decline and Fall

Economic Foundations

Infrastructure and Development

Trade and Resources

Territorial Holdings

Yi Province

Territories Gained from Wei

Nanzhong Region

Rulers of Shu Han

Emperors

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Historical Context and Accuracy