What was the ancient kingdom of Shu, and where was its primary territory located?

The ancient kingdom of Shu, also known as Ancient Shu, was located in what is now Sichuan Province in China. Its core territory was based on the Chengdu Plain, within the western Sichuan basin, with some extensions northeast into the upper Han River valley.

Which other states and tribal confederations bordered the ancient kingdom of Shu?

To the east of Shu was the Ba tribal confederation. Further east, along the Han and Yangtze rivers, lay the State of Chu. To the north, beyond the Qinling Mountains, was the State of Qin. The regions to the west and south were inhabited by tribal peoples with limited military power.

When was the independent Shu state conquered by the state of Qin?

The independent Shu state was conquered by the state of Qin in 316 BCE.

What do recent archaeological findings at Sanxingdui and Jinsha suggest about the region before the Qin conquest?

Recent archaeological discoveries at Sanxingdui and Jinsha, believed to be sites of Shu culture, indicate the presence of a unique and significant civilization in the Sichuan region prior to its conquest by Qin.

How has the name "Shu" been used in later Chinese history?

In subsequent periods of Chinese history, the Sichuan area continued to be referred to as Shu, named after this ancient kingdom. Later states founded in the same region were also given the name Shu.

What is the distinction between the ancient kingdom of Shu discussed in this article and the later state of Shu Han?

This article focuses on the ancient kingdom of Shu, which existed before 316 BCE. It is important to distinguish this from Shu Han, one of the Three Kingdoms of China, which was a later state founded in the same region.

What was discovered at Sanxingdui in 1987, and why was it significant?

The discovery of Sanxingdui in 1987 revealed a major symbolic culture from Neolithic China that was previously unknown. This was surprising because it indicated a significant Bronze Age civilization in the Sichuan Basin, which had been isolated from the Yellow River basin civilization.

What is the estimated timeframe for the Sanxingdui site's prominence as a kingdom's center?

Around 2050–1250 BCE, the site of Sanxingdui, located about 40 km north of Chengdu, appears to have been the center of a fairly extensive kingdom.

What stylistic characteristics of objects found at Sanxingdui suggest a distinct culture?

Objects found in two treasure pits at Sanxingdui were in a style distinct from those found in the Yellow River basin to the north, suggesting a unique cultural development.

What is the prevailing archaeological theory regarding the identity of the Sanxingdui culture?

Many archaeologists suggest that the Sanxingdui culture represents the civilization of the Shu kingdom.

What is the Golden Sun Bird artifact, and what is its significance?

The Golden Sun Bird is an artifact believed to be a totem of the ancient Shu people. It is a circular gold ornament featuring a representation of a bird within a sun-like circle.

What does the bronze figure found at Sanxingdui represent, and when was it created?

A bronze figure, believed to represent a high priest, was created by the inhabitants of Shu during the thirteenth or twelfth century BCE. This artifact showcases the advanced bronze-working capabilities of the ancient Shu civilization.

What is the general state of early Chinese historical records concerning Shu before the 4th century BCE?

Before the 4th century BCE, there are very few mentions of Shu in early Chinese historical records. The information available is often a mixture of mythological stories and historical legends.

What is the ambiguity surrounding mentions of "Shu" in Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions?

While Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions contain possible references to "Shu," it remains unclear whether these refer to the kingdom in Sichuan or to different polities located elsewhere.

In what context is Shu first explicitly mentioned in early Chinese historical texts?

Shu is first mentioned in the Shujing (Book of Documents) as one of the allies of King Wu of Zhou who assisted in defeating the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye around 1046 BCE.

What does the Yizhoushu suggest about Shu's relationship with the Zhou dynasty shortly after the Battle of Muye?

Shortly after the Zhou dynasty's conquest of the Shang, the Yizhoushu mentions that a subordinate of King Wu led an expedition against Shu, indicating a potentially complex or adversarial relationship despite Shu's earlier alliance.

What pattern of cultural influence is suggested by archaeological evidence from the late Shang and early Zhou periods concerning Shu?

Archaeology suggests contacts between Shu and the northern Chinese cultures during the late Shang and early Zhou periods. However, after the initial period, there appears to have been little evidence of influence from later Zhou dynasties, indicating Shu maintained its cultural distinctiveness.

How might the expulsion of the Zhou from the Wei River valley in 771 BCE have impacted Shu?

The expulsion of the Zhou dynasty from the Wei River valley in 771 BCE likely increased Shu's geographical and political isolation from the northern Chinese states.

What are the primary sources for the legendary history of Shu's kings?

Written accounts of Shu's early history are largely found in local annals and miscellaneous notes, such as the Han dynasty compilation Chronicle of the Kings of Shu and the Jin dynasty's Chronicles of Huayang.

Who were some of the semi-legendary rulers of Shu, and what are their associated descriptions?

Some semi-legendary kings of Shu mentioned include Cancong (meaning "silkworm-bush"), Boguan ("cypress-irrigator"), Yufu ("cormorant"), and Duyu ("cuckoo"). Cancong is described as having protruding eyes, and Duyu is credited with teaching agriculture.

What is the legend associated with the founding of the Kaiming dynasty in Shu?

According to legend, a man from Chu named Bieling ("turtle spirit") founded the Kaiming dynasty in 666 BCE. The story tells of his body floating upriver to Shu after dying in Chu, where he then revived, successfully managed a flood, and Duyu abdicated in his favor.

What is the significance of the bronze head with protruding eyes found at Sanxingdui?

The large bronze head with protruding eyes is believed to be a depiction of Cancong, the semi-legendary first king of Shu, known for his distinctive physical feature.

What is the Ba–Shu culture, and how did it develop?

The Ba–Shu culture refers to a distinct cultural sphere that emerged in the Sichuan region. It is believed to have developed through the interaction and influence between the Ba peoples, who were pushed westward by the expansion of the State of Chu, and the Shu kingdom.

When did significant interaction between the Ba and Shu peoples likely occur, leading to the development of Ba-Shu culture?

Archaeologists believe that the interaction between the Ba and Shu peoples, which contributed to the creation of the Ba-Shu culture, primarily occurred in Sichuan during the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.

What was the first recorded instance of direct contact between the Shu and Qin states?

The first recorded contact between the Shu state and the Qin state occurred in 474 BCE when emissaries from Shu presented gifts to Qin.

What military confrontations took place between Shu and Qin before the final conquest?

Before the conquest, Shu troops crossed the Qinling Mountains and approached the Qin capital. Additionally, in 387 BCE, Shu and Qin troops clashed near Hanzhong on the upper Han River.

How did Shang Yang's reforms impact the Qin state prior to its expansion?

Around 356–338 BCE, Shang Yang implemented reforms that strengthened the Qin state by centralizing its administration and military power, preparing it for further expansion.

What was the purpose of the Stone Cattle Road built between Qin and Shu?

The Stone Cattle Road was constructed over the mountains to establish a connection and facilitate communication and transport between the states of Qin and Shu.

What role did the Marquis of Zu play in the events leading to Qin's invasion of Shu?

The Marquis of Zu, who controlled a portion of the Stone Cattle Road, became involved in a conflict with his brother, the twelfth Kaiming King of Shu. After being defeated, the Marquis fled to Ba and then sought refuge in Qin, providing Qin with a pretext for intervention.

What were the strategic proposals presented to King Huiwen of Qin regarding Shu?

Zhang Yi proposed that Qin should focus on its eastward expansion onto the central plain and ignore the "barbarian" states like Shu. In contrast, Sima Cuo argued that Qin should first annex Shu, develop its resources, and then use its enhanced strength for a subsequent eastward campaign.

Which strategic proposal was adopted by Qin, and who led the campaign?

Sima Cuo's proposal to annex Shu first was accepted by King Huiwen of Qin. Both Zhang Yi and Sima Cuo were appointed as generals to lead the campaign into Shu.

Where did the Qin forces engage the Kaiming king's army, and what was the outcome?

The Qin armies met the Kaiming king's forces near Jaimeng in Ba territory, along the Jialing River. The Kaiming king suffered several defeats and was eventually captured and killed in Wuyang.

What happened to the Ba state after the Qin conquest of Shu?

Following the subjugation of Shu, Qin turned its attention to its former allies and annexed the Ba state.

How is the geographical context of the Sichuan Basin depicted before the Qin conquest?

The Sichuan Basin before the Qin conquest is depicted as a region relatively isolated from the developing Chinese civilization centered in the Yellow River basin, characterized by mountainous terrain surrounding it.

What administrative arrangement was put in place in Shu after the Qin conquest?

After the conquest, the son of the last Kaiming king was appointed Marquis Yatong of Shu, tasked with ruling the region in conjunction with a Qin governor.

What challenges did Qin face in administering Shu, and what measures were taken?

Qin faced challenges in developing the newly conquered territory. Measures included surrounding Chengdu with a large wall, redistributing land into rectangular plots, and encouraging tens of thousands of colonists, including convicts and displaced persons, to settle in the region under Qin supervision.

What major irrigation project was initiated in Shu by the Qin?

The Qin began the construction of the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, a significant project designed to divert water from the Min River eastward to irrigate the Chengdu Plain.

Why was Qin's intervention in the Ba state less extensive compared to Shu?

Qin's intervention in Ba was less extensive apparently to avoid alienating the warlike Ba people, who were situated on the border with Chu.

How did Chu's actions interact with Qin's conquest of Shu and Ba?

While Qin was conquering Shu and Ba, Chu was occupied with annexing Yue in the east. Later, a Chu general named Zhuang Qiao moved west and occupied territory south of the Yangtze, effectively cutting himself off from Chu when Qin's Sima Cuo advanced in 281 BCE.

What was the military significance of Bai Qi's campaigns in the region?

General Bai Qi pushed down the Han River, capturing the Chu capital in 278 BCE and the Three Gorges area in 277 BCE. This campaign established a new Qin frontier east of Sichuan.

What does archaeological evidence suggest about the assimilation of Shu under Qin and Han rule?

Archaeological remains found in Shu dating from the Qin and Han periods show strong similarities to those from northern China, suggesting that Qin's policy of assimilation had been successful in integrating Shu into the empire. The Ba area, however, remained somewhat distinct.

What role did Sichuan play during Liu Bang's campaign to establish the Han dynasty?

Sichuan served as an important supply base for Liu Bang during his campaign to found the Han dynasty.

What were Emperor Wu of Han's expansionist efforts in the region south and west of Sichuan, and why were they eventually curtailed?

Under Emperor Wu of Han, campaigns were launched south of the Yangtze River and into the hill country west of Sichuan, aiming to reach Nanyue and potentially India. However, these campaigns proved more expensive than beneficial and were cancelled in 126 BCE to redirect resources to the Xiongnu wars in the north.

What geographical limitations did Chinese expansion face in the southern and western hill country?

Expansion into the hill country to the south and west of Sichuan proved to be much slower than expansion across flat agricultural land, indicating a natural geographical limit to Chinese territorial growth in those directions.

How is the ancient kingdom of Shu represented in Chinese astronomy?

The ancient kingdom of Shu is represented by the star Alpha Serpentis in the Chinese astronomical asterism Right Wall, which is part of the larger Heavenly Market enclosure.

Which other star is associated with Shu in astronomical references, according to R.H. Allen?

According to R.H. Allen's works on star names, Lambda Serpentis is also associated with Shu, alongside Alpha Serpentis.

Shu Kingdom Wiki: Shu Ascendant: Echoes of an Ancient Sichuan Kingdom

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Kingdom Overview

Geographic Foundation

The ancient Kingdom of Shu was a historical realm situated in what is now Sichuan Province, China. Its core territory was established upon the fertile Chengdu Plain, nestled within the western Sichuan Basin. While primarily centered in this region, its influence extended northeastward into the upper Han River valley, marking its distinct geographical and cultural footprint.

Historical Context

Shu existed as an independent kingdom during China's ancient history, particularly flourishing during the Spring and Autumn period and continuing until its conquest. Its relative isolation, separated by mountain ranges from the dominant Zhou dynasty states, fostered a unique cultural identity that persisted for centuries before its eventual assimilation.

Early Mentions and Identity

While direct historical records of Shu are sparse until the 4th century BCE, potential references appear in Shang dynasty oracle bones, suggesting early contact. Its role as an ally of King Wu of Zhou at the Battle of Muye (c. 1046 BCE) is noted in the *Shujing*. Despite these connections, Shu maintained a distinct cultural character, as evidenced by archaeological findings.

Sanxingdui Culture

A Revelation in Archaeology

The discovery of the Sanxingdui site in 1987 dramatically reshaped understanding of ancient Chinese civilization. It revealed a major symbolic culture in Neolithic China, distinct from the Yellow River basin, suggesting it was the center of a significant kingdom, potentially the early Shu state, flourishing around 2050–1250 BCE.

The Golden Sun Bird

A prominent artifact, the Golden Sun Bird, is believed to represent a totem of the ancient Shu people. This exquisite gold disc, found at Sanxingdui, showcases a unique artistic style, differing markedly from artifacts discovered in northern China, underscoring Shu's independent cultural development.

Bronze Masterpieces

The Sanxingdui excavations yielded remarkable bronze artifacts, including large figures and masks. One notable bronze figure, dating to the 13th or 12th century BCE, is thought to depict a high priest, illustrating the advanced artistry and complex spiritual or ritualistic practices of the Shu civilization.

Historical Trajectory

Legendary Rulers and Dynasties

Early accounts of Shu are interwoven with mythology, featuring semi-legendary kings like Cancong (known for protruding eyes), Boguan, Yufu, and Duyu. The Kaiming dynasty, founded by Bieling around 666 BCE, is said to have ruled for twelve generations until the Qin conquest, with legends detailing their origins and succession.

Interactions and Influences

As the state of Chu expanded westward, it influenced the Ba peoples, who in turn interacted with Shu, contributing to the development of the distinct Ba-Shu culture. Early recorded contact between Shu and the state of Qin occurred in 474 BCE, with later military clashes near Hanzhong indicating growing regional tensions.

Shifting Isolation

The expulsion of the Zhou dynasty from the Wei River valley in 771 BCE likely increased Shu's isolation. While archaeological evidence suggests contact during the late Shang and early Zhou periods, Shu's cultural development appears to have been less influenced by later Zhou innovations, reinforcing its unique trajectory.

Qin's Annexation

Strategic Imperatives

By 316 BCE, the state of Qin, having consolidated its power under figures like Shang Yang, debated the strategy for expanding into the Sichuan region. Sima Cuo advocated for annexing Shu to develop its resources for future campaigns, a proposal that ultimately superseded Zhang Yi's focus on eastward expansion.

The Stone Cattle Road

The construction of the Stone Cattle Road, a challenging route over the mountains, facilitated early connections between Qin and Shu. This route played a role in the political maneuvering and military campaigns that led to Shu's eventual subjugation.

Military Campaign and Fall

Qin forces, led by Sima Cuo and Zhang Yi, launched an invasion, meeting Shu armies near the Jialing River. After several defeats, the last Kaiming king was captured and killed in Wuyang, marking the end of the Shu kingdom. Qin subsequently annexed the allied state of Ba as well.

Qin and Han Rule

Administrative Integration

Following the conquest, Qin implemented a commandery system, establishing Chengdu as a walled administrative center. This involved land redistribution, the introduction of colonists from the north, and the initiation of major infrastructure projects like the Dujiangyan Irrigation System to manage the Min River and develop the Chengdu Plain.

Han Dynasty Expansion

During the Han dynasty, particularly under Emperor Wu, Sichuan served as a vital supply base. Campaigns were launched to expand influence into surrounding tribal territories, though these proved costly. Later, Zhang Qian's reports suggested potential routes to India via Sichuan, though these efforts were often hampered by local resistance.

Celestial Representation

In ancient Chinese astronomy, the region or kingdom of Shu is represented by the star Alpha Serpentis. This star is part of the asterism known as the "Right Wall" within the larger "Heavenly Market enclosure," linking the earthly kingdom to the cosmic order.

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References

Star Names, R.H.Allen p.376

A full list of references for this article are available at the Shu (kingdom) Wikipedia page

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Scholarly Context

This document has been meticulously crafted by an AI, drawing exclusively from the provided source material concerning the ancient Shu kingdom. It is intended for academic and educational purposes, aiming to present historical information with clarity and depth suitable for advanced study.

This is not a substitute for primary source analysis or expert historical consultation. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy based on the source, interpretations and contextualization are AI-generated. Always consult original historical texts and scholarly works for comprehensive understanding and verification. The information provided does not constitute professional historical advice.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any interpretations, omissions, or actions taken based on the information presented herein.

Shu Ascendant

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Kingdom Overview 🏛️

🗺️ Geographic Foundation

⏳ Historical Context

👑 Early Mentions and Identity

Sanxingdui Culture 🌟

💎 A Revelation in Archaeology

☀️ The Golden Sun Bird

🗿 Bronze Masterpieces

Historical Trajectory 📜

👑 Legendary Rulers and Dynasties

🤝 Interactions and Influences

📉 Shifting Isolation

Qin's Annexation ⚔️

⚖️ Strategic Imperatives

⛰️ The Stone Cattle Road

🌊 Military Campaign and Fall

Qin and Han Rule 📈

🏗️ Administrative Integration

🔗 Han Dynasty Expansion

⭐ Celestial Representation

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References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Scholarly Context

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Kingdom Overview

Geographic Foundation

Historical Context

Early Mentions and Identity

Sanxingdui Culture

A Revelation in Archaeology

The Golden Sun Bird

Bronze Masterpieces

Historical Trajectory

Legendary Rulers and Dynasties

Interactions and Influences

Shifting Isolation

Qin's Annexation

Strategic Imperatives

The Stone Cattle Road

Military Campaign and Fall

Qin and Han Rule

Administrative Integration

Han Dynasty Expansion

Celestial Representation

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Scholarly Context