What is Singidunum and what modern city evolved from it?

Singidunum was an ancient city that eventually developed into modern Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. Its name has Celtic origins, reflecting the settlement's early history.

What is the origin of the name Singidunum?

The name Singidunum has Celtic origins, stemming from the time when the Celtic tribe Scordisci settled the area in the 3rd century BC. The second element, 'dūn', is a common Celtic word for 'enclosure' or 'fortress'.

Which Celtic tribe is credited with establishing Singidunum, and when was it first mentioned?

The Scordisci, a Celtic tribe, are credited with establishing Singidunum. The settlement was first mentioned in historical records in 279 BC, indicating it was already a fortified settlement at that time.

What limited archaeological evidence exists from Singidunum's foundational Celtic period?

Archaeological evidence from Singidunum's foundational Celtic period is limited, with few traces of the original town itself. However, burial sites, known as necropolises, have been found in modern neighborhoods like Karaburma and Rospi Ćuprija, containing valuable artistic artifacts belonging to Scordiscan warriors.

Where was the Celtic fortification of Singidunum likely located?

The Celtic fortification was likely a primitive structure situated on the Terazije ridge, overlooking the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, in the area where Belgrade Fortress stands today. Some historians suggest it might have been closer to the discovered Celtic necropolises.

Which other modern Belgrade neighborhoods show evidence of Scordisci habitation?

Evidence of Scordisci habitation has also been found in modern Belgrade neighborhoods such as Autokomanda, Bežanija, Ada Ciganlija, and Ada Huja. Additionally, Zemun, now part of Belgrade, was also founded by the Scordisci around the same time they established Singidunum.

What are the proposed etymologies for the 'singi-' part of the name Singidunum?

Several theories exist for the 'singi-' part of Singidunum's name. One suggests it's a Celtic word for 'circle,' while another proposes it's named after the Sings, a Thracian tribe. A less likely theory connects it to the Irish 'sean guí,' meaning 'old prayer,' implying religious significance.

Which Roman tribes or groups were conquered or displaced by Roman expansion in the Singidunum area?

The Roman Republic conquered the area around Singidunum, driving out tribes such as the Scordisci, Dardanians, and Dacians. The region was incorporated into the Roman province of Moesia.

When did the Roman Republic first conquer the area around Singidunum, and who led the campaign?

The Roman Republic began conquering lands around Singidunum in the 1st century BC. Gaius Scribonius Curio, the proconsul of Macedonia, led an invasion as far as the Danube in 75 BC to drive out local tribes, although Roman control was not fully stabilized until later campaigns.

How did Singidunum become a significant Roman settlement?

Singidunum was Romanized from its original Celtic form and became a primary settlement within the province of Moesia. It was strategically located on the Danubian Limes and the Via Militaris, a crucial Roman road, and served as a base for Roman legions.

Which Roman legion was stationed at Singidunum, and for how long?

The Roman legion Legio IV Flavia Felix was transferred to Singidunum in 86 AD and remained stationed there for most of the time until the mid-5th century. Prior to that, the camp was likely occupied by soldiers from Legio VIII Augusta between 46 AD and 69 AD.

What kind of fortifications did Legio IV Flavia Felix construct in Singidunum?

Legio IV Flavia Felix constructed a square-shaped castrum (fort) at Singidunum, which occupied the Upper Town of the modern Belgrade Fortress. Initially built with earthen ramparts and wooden palisades, it was soon fortified with stone, marking the first stone fort in Belgrade's history.

What was the significance of the pontoon bridge built by the Romans connecting Singidunum?

The Romans constructed a pontoon bridge over the Sava River, connecting Singidunum with Taurunum. This bridge facilitated the connection of the Via Militaris with the western parts of the empire, establishing Singidunum as a major crossroads.

What rights did Emperor Hadrian grant to Singidunum, and when did it become a colony?

Emperor Hadrian granted Singidunum the rights of a 'municipium,' which included local autonomy, statute, and laws. These rights were confirmed in 169 AD, and Singidunum later advanced to the status of a full-fledged colony in 239 AD.

Who was the Roman Emperor born in Singidunum, and what is his historical significance?

The Roman Emperor Jovian, who was born in Singidunum in 332 AD, is historically significant for re-establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. He is popularly remembered as the only Roman emperor born in Belgrade.

How was Singidunum administratively organized within the Roman Empire?

After the province of Dacia was abandoned and the Roman Empire was divided, Singidunum became part of Moesia Superior, also known as Upper Moesia. It served as an important military outpost on the northwestern border of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Describe the urban layout of Roman Singidunum.

Singidunum featured a planned urban layout with a forum, temples, structured and paved streets meeting at right angles, an aqueduct, and a sewage system. The street grid is still discernible in modern Belgrade's layout, and Studentski Trg was the site of the Roman forum and thermae.

What materials were used in the construction of the Singidunum castrum, and what was its approximate size?

The castrum walls were constructed from white Tašmajdan limestone. The fortified area covered approximately 16 to 20 hectares (40 to 49 acres) and was shaped as an irregular rectangle, measuring roughly 570 by 330 meters (1,870 by 1,080 feet).

What role did the Via Militaris play in relation to Singidunum?

The Via Militaris, a major Roman road, began in Singidunum and extended 924 km (574 mi) to Constantinople. Locally, it connected Singidunum with other fortresses and settlements along the Danube border, such as Viminacium. The road was lined with shops, forges, and arsenals.

What natural resources were exploited by the Romans near Singidunum?

The Romans extracted stone from the Tašmajdan quarry for building Singidunum and its sarcophagi. Aqueducts were constructed to bring water from areas like Kumodraž and Mokri Lug. Additionally, mines on Avala mountain yielded lead, zinc, silver, and mercury, while Kosmaj mountain was rich in silver, iron, and lead ores.

What happened to Singidunum during the Migration Period?

During the 5th and 6th centuries, Singidunum suffered devastating raids from various groups including the Huns, Ostrogoths, Gepids, Sarmatians, Avars, and Slavs. It was sacked by the Huns in 441 AD, razed to the ground, and its inhabitants sold into slavery.

How did Singidunum change hands multiple times after the Hunnic invasion?

After the Hunnic sack in 441 AD, Singidunum was reclaimed by the Romans, then conquered by the Sarmatians, followed by the Ostrogoths in 470 AD. It was later invaded by Gepids in 488 AD, recaptured by the Ostrogoths in 504 AD, and then reclaimed by the Eastern Roman Empire six years later through a peace treaty.

What efforts were made by Emperor Justinian I regarding Singidunum?

Emperor Justinian I rebuilt Singidunum from scratch in 535 AD, restoring the fortress and city to its former military importance. However, he focused the rebuilding efforts primarily on the area within the former legion's camp.

When was Singidunum finally destroyed, and by whom?

Singidunum was sacked by the Avars in 584 AD, and although recaptured by the Byzantines in 596 AD, it faced constant attacks. The city was ultimately destroyed and burned to the ground by the Avars in the early 7th century, likely before 614 AD.

What happened to the site of Singidunum after its destruction by the Avars?

After its destruction by the Avars in the early 7th century, Singidunum ceased to be mentioned in historical records for several centuries. During this period, Slavs settled the area and named it Beograd, meaning 'white city,' likely referencing the white limestone used in the original Roman castrum.

When was the Slavic name 'Beograd' first recorded, and in what context?

The Slavic name 'Beograd' was first recorded in a letter dated April 16, 878 AD, written by Pope John VIII to Bulgarian prince Boris I. The Pope mentioned 'episcopatus Belogradensis,' indicating the city was then part of the First Bulgarian Empire and had a bishopric.

What is the current state of archaeological exploration of Singidunum's remains?

The later development of Belgrade has destroyed over 80% of the cultural layer of Singidunum's civilian settlement and necropolises. Only limited sections have been excavated, conserved, and reburied, with ongoing construction projects sometimes leading to the destruction of previously unexplored archaeological sites.

What significant archaeological discoveries have been made in downtown Belgrade related to Singidunum?

Significant discoveries include tombs from various Roman periods near the Monument to Prince Michael (1882), such as unique 'well-tombs' dated to around 100 AD. Other finds include ceramics, coins, statues, and architectural fragments from different eras of Roman occupation, as well as a rare temple dedicated to Hecate in Dorćol.

What were the 'well-tombs' found in Belgrade, and what is their significance?

The 'well-tombs' are deep burial shafts, some exceeding 10 meters, found in Belgrade, possibly indicating a Gallic custom. The oldest discovered date to around 100 AD and contained artifacts like pottery and bronze items, while later brick tombs date to around 400 AD and sometimes bear stamps from Legio IV Flavia Felix.

What archaeological evidence of Roman thermae (bathhouses) has been found in Singidunum?

Remains of Roman thermae have been discovered in several locations, including Studentski Trg, which served as the city's forum, and near the Faculty of Philosophy Plateau. These bath complexes typically included rooms for cold (frigidarium), warm (laconicum), and hot (caldarium) water.

What is the significance of the archaeological site at Studentski Trg in Belgrade?

Studentski Trg was the site of the Roman forum and thermae in Singidunum. It is considered to have the deepest 'cultural and historical sedimentation' in Belgrade and is crucial for understanding the city's origins. However, recent construction projects have raised concerns about the preservation of these remains.

What archaeological findings indicate the presence of religious sites in Singidunum?

Archaeological findings include a shrine dedicated to Mithras in the Lower Town of the Belgrade Fortress. Additionally, a house of worship dedicated to the Greek goddess Hecate, dating to around 235 AD, was discovered in Dorćol, which is a rare finding for the region.

How did the Via Militaris contribute to Singidunum's development?

The Via Militaris was a vital Roman road that connected Singidunum to Constantinople and other key settlements along the Danube. Its presence facilitated trade, military movement, and the city's role as a major crossroads, with the road itself lined with various commercial and military structures.

What evidence suggests that Singidunum was a well-planned Roman city?

Evidence of Singidunum's planned nature includes its rectilinear street grid, the presence of a forum, temples, aqueducts, and sewage systems. The alignment of streets like Knez Mihailova Street still reflects the original Roman urban design.

What role did the Roman legions play in the development and defense of Singidunum?

Legions stationed at Singidunum, such as Legio IV Flavia Felix, were instrumental in its defense along the Danubian Limes. They also undertook construction projects, including the stone castrum and a pontoon bridge, and their veterans often settled nearby, contributing to the growth of the civilian settlement.

What historical events led to the eventual abandonment and destruction of Singidunum?

Singidunum faced numerous invasions and sacks, notably by the Huns in 441 AD and later by the Avars and Slavs. These repeated destructions, coupled with the general decline of the Roman Empire's borders, ultimately led to the city's abandonment and final destruction in the early 7th century.

What is the significance of the name 'Beograd' in relation to Singidunum?

'Beograd,' meaning 'white city,' is the Slavic name given to the settlement after Singidunum's destruction. It is believed to be derived from the white Tašmajdan limestone used by the Romans to build the original castrum, reflecting the continuity of the site's importance.

What archaeological evidence exists for the Roman presence in the outer neighborhoods of Singidunum?

Archaeological findings in outer neighborhoods like Brestovik, Ritopek, and Zemun Polje include Roman tombs, forts, settlements, and artifacts. For instance, a Roman tomb dating to around 300 AD was found in Brestovik, and a significant Roman fort was discovered in Zemun Polje, identified as the largest known outer suburb of Singidunum.

What was the role of the mines in the region surrounding Singidunum for the Romans?

The Romans exploited mineral resources from mountains like Avala and Kosmaj, which were located near Singidunum. They extracted lead, zinc, silver, and mercury from Avala, and silver, iron, and lead from Kosmaj, with these mines being significant economic assets during the Roman Empire.

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Origins and Identity

Celtic Roots

The city's name, Singidunum, originates from the Celtic tribe known as the Scordisci. Following their invasion of the Balkans in the 3rd century BC, they settled in this strategic location at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers. Singidunum is first mentioned in 279 BC as an already fortified settlement, marking the beginning of its recorded history.⁵ Archaeological evidence, primarily from necropolises in modern-day Karaburma and Rospi Ćuprija, reveals valuable artifacts and insights into the Scordisci culture that influenced the region.

Roman Arrival and Integration

The Roman Republic conquered the area around Singidunum in 75 BC. Although initial campaigns were brief, the region was eventually incorporated into the Roman province of Moesia. Singidunum became a crucial fort along the Danubian Limes, a vital frontier of the Roman Empire. The city's strategic position and development were significantly shaped by Roman administration and military presence.

Naming and Evolution

The original Celtic settlement, "Singidun," was Romanized to "Singidunum." The name's etymology is debated, with theories suggesting Celtic origins related to "fortress" (dun) and possibly "circle" (singi) or a Thracian tribe named Sings. Over centuries, this Roman city would eventually evolve into modern Belgrade, the capital of Serbia.

The Roman Metropolis

Legionary Stronghold

Singidunum reached significant military importance with the permanent stationing of Legio IV Flavia Felix starting in 86 AD. This legion established a square-shaped castrum (fort) on the Belgrade Fortress's Upper Town. Initially built with earthen ramparts and wooden palisades, it was later fortified with stone, becoming a key defensive outpost against threats from across the Danube. The legion also constructed a pontoon bridge across the Sava, linking Singidunum to Taurunum.

Urban Fabric and Infrastructure

The city boasted a well-organized urban layout, featuring a forum, temples dedicated to Jupiter and Nemesis, public baths (thermae), an aqueduct system, and a sewage system. Streets were planned in a rectilinear grid, with modern streets like Knez Mihailova Street still following this ancient layout. Remains of these structures, including thermae and parts of the castrum walls, have been unearthed, offering glimpses into daily Roman life.

Civic Status and Imperial Connection

Under Emperor Hadrian, Singidunum was granted the rights of a municipium, signifying local autonomy. These rights were confirmed in 169 AD, and by 239 AD, it had achieved the status of a full-fledged colony. Notably, Singidunum was the birthplace of Roman Emperor Jovian in 332 AD, who played a role in re-establishing Christianity within the Roman Empire.

The Via Militaris

Singidunum was a critical point on the Via Militaris, an important Roman road stretching 924 km to Constantinople. This route facilitated military movements and trade, connecting Singidunum with other major settlements and fortresses along the Danubian limes, as well as the western parts of the empire.

Expansion and Influence

Suburban Life and Port

Beyond the main castrum, Singidunum included a Lower Town in the alluvial plain between the rivers, protected by ramparts. A civilian settlement grew around the fortress, with its main axis along the modern Knez Mihailova Street. A port on the Danube, operational until the 18th century, served the city and its Pannonian fleet.

Outer Settlements and Resources

The influence of Singidunum extended to surrounding areas. Taurunum (modern Zemun), across the Sava, served as a harbor and settlement. Other sites like Tricornium (modern Ritopek) housed military camps. Romans exploited mineral resources from nearby mountains like Avala and Kosmaj, extracting lead, zinc, and silver, with mining activities continuing into the medieval period.

Transition and Transformation

Era of Migrations and Destruction

The 5th and 6th centuries brought waves of invasions by Huns, Goths, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs. Singidunum suffered significant damage, notably being sacked by the Huns in 441 AD. The city changed hands multiple times between Romans, Sarmatians, Ostrogoths, and Gepids. Emperor Justinian I rebuilt Singidunum in 535 AD, restoring the fortress, but it was again sacked by Avars in 584 AD and ultimately destroyed in the early 7th century.

Byzantine Resurgence

Following the Hunnic collapse, Romans reclaimed the city. Emperor Justinian I's rebuilding efforts in 535 AD focused on the former legionary camp, re-establishing Singidunum as an important border stronghold for the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Despite a period of peace, the city remained vulnerable to subsequent invasions.

Slavic Dawn: Belgrade Emerges

After its destruction in the early 7th century, the fate of Singidunum is obscure for a period. However, during the 9th century, Slavs settled the area, naming the rebuilt city "Beograd" (White City), likely referencing the white limestone used in the Roman castrum. The name "Belgrade" was first officially mentioned in an 878 AD letter from Pope John VIII.

Archaeological Legacy

Unearthing the Past

Much of Singidunum's archaeological layer has been lost due to subsequent urban development. However, key sites like Studentski Trg, Park Proleće, and Tadeuša Košćuško Street have yielded significant discoveries. Excavations have revealed remnants of Roman fortifications, urban grids, public buildings, and numerous necropolises, providing invaluable insights into the city's layered history.

Key Discoveries

Notable findings include Roman tombs, some dating back to the 1st century AD, containing pottery, coins, and personal artifacts. The discovery of a temple dedicated to the goddess Hecate, thermae complexes, and sections of the castrum ramparts highlight the city's cultural and architectural significance. The ongoing challenge lies in balancing modern development with the preservation of these ancient remains.

Sources

Referenced Materials

This content is compiled from various historical texts, encyclopedias, and scholarly articles, providing a comprehensive overview of Singidunum's history and archaeological significance.

The following sources were consulted:

Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Singidunum". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Vol. 3.
Politika, 6 November 2018.
Britannica, 2005 (Beograd).
Stanković, Srboljub (2008). Encyclopedia of Serbian people.
City of Belgrade, 2018. "Discover Belgrade - Ancient period".
Vujović, Miroslav (2008). Encyclopedia of Serbian people.
Politika, 8 November 2018.
Politika, 18 May 2018.
Dumitru Protase: Castrul legiunii IIII Flavia de la Berzovia.
Little encyclopedia Prosveta, 1986.
Popović, Marko (2011). Serbian Encyclopedia. Vol. I, Book 2.
Google Maps.
Politika, 16 June 2009.
Politika, 21 February 2016.
Novosti, 7 October 2002.
Politika, 24 September 2017.
Politika, 30 October 2011.
Politika, 4 January 2017.
Politika, 15 April 2017.
Taylor, William Cooke (1878). A manual of ancient and modern history.
Levick, Barbara (1999). Vespasian.
Politika, 13 August 2017.
Politika, 26 August 2017.
Virtuelni muzej Dunava, 2012.
Avala Mountain.
Politika, 30 October 2017a.
Politika, 30 May 2011.
Politika, 9 September 1963.
Serbian family encyclopedia, 2006.
Britannica, 2005 (Singidunum).
B92, 13 July 2016.
Politika, 30 October 2017b.
Politika, 4 November 2017.
Politika, 21 July 2018.
Politika, 15 January 2018.
Politika, 14 November 2011.
Politika, 27 May 2009.
ULBS.
Curta, Florin (2001). The Making of the Slavs.
Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages.
Given, John (2014). The Fragmentary History of Priscus.
Mócsy, András (2014). Pannonia and Upper Moesia.
Todorović, Jovan (1974). Skordisci: istorija i kultura.
Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian.
Janković, Đorđe (2004). "The Slavs in the 6th Century North Illyricum". Glasnik Srpskog arheološkog društva.
Politika, 8 November 2018.
Politika, 21 July 2018.
Politika, 6 November 2018.
Politika, 18 May 2018.

External Links

Further Exploration

Explore more about Singidunum and its historical context through these curated resources.

Wikimedia Commons: Singidunum Media (opens in new tab)
Official Site of Belgrade: Ancient Period (opens in new tab)
Official Site of Belgrade: Byzantine Empire (opens in new tab)
Ancient Worlds: Singidunum (opens in new tab)
Belgrade Fortress: History (opens in new tab)
Beogradskatvrdjava.co.rs (opens in new tab)
Necropolises of Roman Singidunum (opens in new tab)

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Singidunum: Echoes of an Ancient Metropolis

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Origins and Identity 🏛️

⚔️ Celtic Roots

🦅 Roman Arrival and Integration

📜 Naming and Evolution

The Roman Metropolis 🛡️

🛡️ Legionary Stronghold

🏛️ Urban Fabric and Infrastructure

👑 Civic Status and Imperial Connection

🛣️ The Via Militaris

Expansion and Influence 🏘️

🏘️ Suburban Life and Port

⛰️ Outer Settlements and Resources

Transition and Transformation ☀️

🌪️ Era of Migrations and Destruction

🏰 Byzantine Resurgence

☀️ Slavic Dawn: Belgrade Emerges

Archaeological Legacy ⛏️

⛏️ Unearthing the Past

🏺 Key Discoveries

Sources 📚

📖 Referenced Materials

External Links 🌐

🔗 Further Exploration

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Origins and Identity

Celtic Roots

Roman Arrival and Integration

Naming and Evolution

The Roman Metropolis

Legionary Stronghold

Urban Fabric and Infrastructure

Civic Status and Imperial Connection

The Via Militaris

Expansion and Influence

Suburban Life and Port

Outer Settlements and Resources

Transition and Transformation

Era of Migrations and Destruction

Byzantine Resurgence

Slavic Dawn: Belgrade Emerges

Archaeological Legacy

Unearthing the Past

Key Discoveries

Sources

Referenced Materials

External Links

Further Exploration

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice