What was Srivijaya and where was it based?

Srivijaya was a Malay thalassocratic empire that was based on the island of Sumatra, in modern-day Indonesia. It flourished from approximately 671 to 1025 AD and exerted significant influence over much of Southeast Asia.

What was Srivijaya's significance in the context of Buddhism?

Srivijaya served as an important center for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to the 11th century AD. It was a stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism and attracted pilgrims and scholars from across Asia.

What does the name 'Srivijaya' mean?

The name 'Srivijaya' originates from Sanskrit, combining 'Sri,' meaning fortunate or prosperous, with 'Vijaya,' meaning victorious or excellence. Therefore, Srivijaya can be interpreted as 'shining victory,' 'splendid triumph,' or 'glorious.'

What is the earliest known reference to Srivijaya?

The earliest reference to Srivijaya dates back to the 7th century. The Chinese monk Yijing visited Srivijaya in 671 AD and stayed for six months, documenting his visit. The Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated June 16, 682 AD, is the earliest known inscription bearing the name Srivijaya.

How did Srivijaya develop its economy?

Srivijaya developed a complex economy that became progressively reliant on the booming trade in the region, transforming it into a prestige goods-based economy. Its strategic location allowed it to control key maritime trade routes, particularly the Strait of Malacca.

What role did Srivijaya's maritime fleet play?

Srivijaya leveraged its maritime fleet not only for logistical support but also as a primary tool to project power across strategic waterways like the Strait of Malacca. The fleet was used to regulate trade routes, attract merchant ships, and protect trade interests, effectively serving as an offensive force when necessary.

What led to the disintegration of the Srivijayan empire?

The Srivijayan empire likely disintegrated after 1025 AD due to several major raids launched by the Chola Empire from South India. These raids significantly weakened Srivijaya's hegemony and control over regional trade.

Who was George Cœdès and what was his contribution to Srivijayan studies?

George Cœdès was a French scholar who, in 1918, formally postulated the existence of Srivijaya. He recognized that Chinese references to 'Sanfoqi' and Old Malay inscriptions referred to the same empire, bringing the forgotten kingdom back into historical focus.

What are the primary sources used to reconstruct Srivijaya's history?

Srivijaya's history is reconstructed from two main sources: Chinese historical accounts, such as those by Yijing and Zhao Rukuo, and Southeast Asian stone inscriptions, primarily written in Old Malay using the Pallava script, like the Kedukan Bukit, Talang Tuwo, and Kota Kapur inscriptions.

What is the significance of the Kedukan Bukit inscription?

The Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 683 AD, is considered the oldest inscription related to Srivijaya. It details the 'siddhayatra' journey led by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, marking the establishment of Srivijaya and its expansion.

What theories exist regarding the location of Srivijaya's capital?

While the Kedukan Bukit inscription suggests Palembang as the initial capital, some scholars like Soekmono argue against this, proposing the Kampar River system in Riau. More recent studies suggest the capital might have been located near the upper Komering River, a tributary of the Musi River.

What archaeological evidence supports Palembang as a Srivijayan center?

Archaeological findings near Palembang, such as large quantities of Chinese ceramics, Indian rouletted ware, and Buddhist statuary, along with the remnants of ancient man-made canals and ponds, suggest that Palembang was indeed a significant urban center of Srivijaya.

How did Srivijaya expand its influence in Southeast Asia?

Srivijaya expanded its influence through maritime conquests and by establishing suzerainty over various port cities and kingdoms in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Java. It controlled key trade routes like the Strait of Malacca and the western side of the Java Sea.

What was the relationship between Srivijaya and the Sailendra dynasty?

In the second half of the eighth century, the Sailendra dynasty of Central Java appears to have ruled Srivijaya, with Arab sources mentioning Java ruling over Srivijaya. The Sailendra ruler Samaratungga, who reigned from 792 to 835 AD, oversaw the completion of Borobudur and strengthened Srivijayan hold on Java.

What was the nature of the conflict between Srivijaya and the Javanese Mataram kingdom?

In the 10th century, rivalry between Srivijaya and the Javanese Mataram kingdom intensified. In 990 AD, the Javanese King Dharmawangsa launched a naval invasion against Srivijaya, attempting to capture its capital, which led to prolonged conflict and contributed to Mataram's eventual collapse.

What was the impact of the Chola invasion on Srivijaya?

The Chola invasion, led by Rajendra Chola I in 1025 AD, launched naval raids on Srivijaya's ports, including Palembang and Kedah. This significantly weakened Srivijayan hegemony and control over regional trade, marking a major factor in its decline.

What evidence suggests Srivijayan influence in Madagascar?

Between the 9th and 12th centuries, Srivijayan navigators may have reached Madagascar. Linguistic and genetic studies suggest that native Malagasy people today may trace their heritage back to Indonesian settlers from Srivijaya, with loan words from Sanskrit found in the Malagasy language.

What was the political structure of Srivijaya?

Srivijaya's political structure is described as a 'mandala model,' typical of classical Southeast Asian kingdoms. It was a confederation of semi-autonomous port cities and local principalities (Kadatuans) that swore allegiance to the central ruling Kadatuan of Srivijaya.

What commodities were traded by Srivijaya?

Srivijaya was a major entrepôt for a wide range of commodities, including rice, cotton, indigo, silver, aloes, resin, camphor, ivory, rhino horns, tin, gold, rattan, timber, gems, spices like cloves and nutmeg, and Chinese ceramics and silks.

What was Srivijaya's relationship with China?

Srivijaya maintained lucrative trade agreements and tributary relations with China's Tang and Song dynasties. They sent several envoys to secure the Chinese court's favor, highlighting Srivijaya's role as an intermediary in regional trade.

What evidence points to Srivijaya being a thalassocracy?

Some historians argue Srivijaya was a thalassocracy because it controlled transoceanic trade through the Strait of Malacca as part of the Maritime Silk Road. This involved dominating a confederation of semi-autonomous port cities, though the exact nature of its naval development is debated.

What role did Old Malay play in Srivijaya?

Old Malay, the predecessor to modern Malay, was used in Srivijayan inscriptions from the 7th century onwards. Its widespread use as a lingua franca throughout the Malay Archipelago, promoted by Srivijaya's trade and influence, elevated local languages to a status comparable to Sanskrit.

What artistic influences are seen in Srivijayan art?

Srivijayan art, particularly Buddhist art, was heavily influenced by the Indian art styles of the Gupta and Pala Empires. This is evident in the Amaravati-style Buddha statue found in Palembang, dating to the 7th or 8th century.

What religions were practiced in Srivijaya?

Buddhism, particularly Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, was a dominant religion in Srivijaya, with the empire playing a key role in its spread. Hinduism was also practiced, as evidenced by the discovery of Hindu temple ruins, suggesting peaceful coexistence between the two religions.

What is the legacy of Srivijaya in modern Indonesia?

Srivijaya is a source of national pride and regional identity, especially for the people of Palembang and South Sumatra. Its name is associated with institutions like Srivijaya University, companies, stadiums, and cultural performances, symbolizing a historical golden age.

What was the significance of the 'siddhayatra' journey mentioned in inscriptions?

The 'siddhayatra' journey, mentioned in inscriptions like Kedukan Bukit and Talang Tuwo, refers to a sacred journey undertaken by rulers like Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. It was associated with acquiring wealth, power, and possibly 'magical powers,' and involved maritime expeditions and military campaigns.

How did Srivijaya manage its relations with regional polities?

Srivijaya managed its relations through a combination of alliances, fealty among local elites, redistribution of wealth, and dynastic marriages, often referred to as a 'ritual policy.' While coercion through raids was also used, these softer approaches helped maintain its mandala structure.

What evidence suggests Srivijaya's influence extended to the Malay Peninsula?

During the 7th century, kingdoms like Langkasuka, Pan Pan, and Tambralinga on the Malay Peninsula became part of Srivijaya. The Ligor inscription also indicates Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu ordered the construction of sanctuaries in the northern Malay Peninsula.

What was the role of the 'orang laut' in Srivijaya?

The 'orang laut,' or sea people, likely formed a significant portion of Srivijaya's armed forces. They were crucial for the empire's maritime activities, including military campaigns and maintaining control over strategic waterways.

What challenges exist in studying Srivijaya's history?

Studying Srivijaya's history is challenging due to the scarcity of contemporary physical evidence and the fact that its history was largely forgotten until rediscovered by foreign scholars. The empire's amorphous statehood and reliance on maritime resources also contribute to the difficulty in pinpointing its exact capital and extent.

What was the significance of Srivijaya's control over the Malacca and Sunda Straits?

Control over the Malacca and Sunda Straits was crucial for Srivijaya as it allowed the empire to dominate the spice route traffic and local trade between India and China. By charging tolls on passing ships, Srivijaya accumulated significant wealth and maintained its position as a major entrepôt.

How did Srivijaya interact with the Arab world?

Srivijaya established commercial links with Arabia. Arab writers of the 9th and 10th centuries described the wealth and power of the rulers in the region, potentially including Srivijaya, and noted its role as a trading hub connecting the Middle East and East Asia.

What is the significance of the 'Gending Sriwijaya' dance?

The 'Gending Sriwijaya' is a traditional dance from Palembang, South Sumatra, that draws artistic inspiration from the Srivijayan era. It is a symbol of regional identity and a connection to the historical grandeur of the ancient empire.

What evidence suggests Srivijaya's influence on the development of the Malay language?

Srivijayan inscriptions were written in Old Malay, the precursor to modern Malay. This practice promoted the status of Old Malay as a lingua franca across the Malay Archipelago, used by traders and in various ports, contributing to its widespread adoption.

What role did Chinese historical accounts play in understanding Srivijaya?

Chinese historical accounts, such as those from the Tang and Song dynasties, provided crucial information about Srivijaya's trade relations, political structure, and interactions with other states. They mentioned Srivijaya by names like 'Sanfoqi' or 'Che-li-fo-che' and recorded its embassies and commercial activities.

What was the nature of Srivijaya's economy in relation to its hinterland?

Srivijaya's economy was heavily reliant on maritime trade, acting as an entrepôt for goods from various regions. While it had a hinterland, particularly the Musi River basin rich in commodities, its economic success was primarily driven by its control over interregional and international trade routes.

What is the significance of the 'riverine system model' in understanding Srivijaya's economy?

The 'riverine system model' suggests that Srivijaya's dominance over river systems and their mouths, like the Musi and Batang Hari rivers, allowed it to control the flow of goods from inland regions and manage trade within the Malacca Strait. This control was maintained through alliances with local elites and wealth redistribution.

What goods were considered native to Srivijaya, and what is the debate surrounding them?

The exact native products of Srivijaya are debated, as the volume of foreign goods traded through its ports might have led to misidentification. While camphor, aloes, sandalwood, and spices are often mentioned, it's possible these were accumulated from other regions rather than being exclusively Srivijayan products.

What was the role of Palembang in the Srivijayan empire?

Palembang, situated on the Musi River, is considered a likely early capital or significant center of Srivijaya. Archaeological evidence and historical accounts suggest it was a major hub for trade and possibly a center for Buddhist learning.

What is the significance of the 'Mandala' political model in relation to Srivijaya?

Srivijaya's political organization is often described using the 'mandala model,' common in Southeast Asian kingdoms. This model implies a decentralized structure where various tributary polities were linked to a central dominant power, Srivijaya, without necessarily undergoing full administrative integration.

How did Srivijaya's relationship with regional powers evolve over time?

Initially, Srivijaya established suzerainty over many regional polities through alliances and trade. However, factors like the Chola invasion and the rise of rival kingdoms led to a decline in its influence, with some former vassals gaining independence or shifting allegiances.

What evidence suggests a connection between Srivijaya and the Malay Annals?

The Malay Annals mention 'Raja Chulan,' believed to refer to the Chola king Rajendra Chola I, who raided Srivijaya. This mention indicates that the Chola's impact on Srivijaya was significant enough to be recorded in local historical narratives.

What was the nature of Srivijaya's military, particularly its navy?

While Srivijaya was a maritime power, evidence suggests its navy primarily served as logistical support rather than a dominant offensive force, especially in its early stages. Compared to contemporary powers like Java and the Cholas, Srivijaya's naval capabilities appear to have been relatively weaker.

What role did Srivijaya play in the spread of Malay culture?

Through its expansion, economic power, and military influence, Srivijaya was instrumental in spreading Old Malay language and Malay culture throughout the Malay Archipelago. It became the working language of traders and was used in various ports and marketplaces across the region.

What is the significance of the 'Gending Sriwijaya' song?

The 'Gending Sriwijaya' is a song associated with Palembang, South Sumatra, that draws inspiration from the Srivijayan era. It reflects the cultural legacy and historical pride associated with the ancient empire in the region.

What are some of the key Srivijayan inscriptions mentioned in the text?

Key Srivijayan inscriptions mentioned include the Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD), the Talang Tuwo inscription (684 AD), the Kota Kapur inscription (686 AD), and the Telaga Batu inscription (7th century). These inscriptions provide insights into the empire's administration, religion, and military activities.

What was the relationship between Srivijaya and the Khmer Empire?

The Khmer king Jayavarman II spent time in Java, possibly under Sailendra rule which was linked to Srivijaya. After returning to Cambodia, Jayavarman II declared independence from Java around 802 AD, establishing the Khmer Empire and initiating the Angkor era, thus breaking ties with the Srivijayan mandala.

What evidence suggests Srivijaya's influence on the development of songket weaving?

Archaeological studies of the Bumiayu temple complex in South Sumatra suggest that songket weaving, particularly the 'lepus' motif, was known in the region as early as the 9th century. This supports the notion that the tradition of songket originated in Srivijaya.

Srivijaya Wiki: Srivijaya: Maritime Nexus of Ancient Southeast Asia

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Overview

Thalassocratic Power

Srivijaya was a prominent Malay thalassocratic empire, establishing its influence across much of Maritime Southeast Asia. Based on the island of Sumatra, it was the first polity to dominate a significant portion of this region.

Regional Influence

From the 7th to the 11th century AD, Srivijaya served as a crucial hub for the expansion of Buddhism. Its strategic location facilitated complex maritime trade networks, making it a vital economic and cultural center.

Economic Engine

The empire's economy became increasingly reliant on the booming regional trade, particularly in luxury goods. This maritime focus fostered the development of sophisticated naval technology and strategic control over key waterways.

Etymology

Sanskrit Roots

The name "Srivijaya" originates from Sanskrit. It is a combination of Sri (meaning "fortunate," "prosperous," or "divine") and Vijaya (meaning "victorious" or "excellence").

Collectively, Srivijaya translates to "shining victory," "splendid triumph," or "glorious," reflecting the empire's perceived power and success.

Historical Interpretation

Early 20th-century historians initially believed "Srivijaya" referred to a king's name. However, subsequent epigraphic and textual analysis, notably by H. Kern and later scholars, confirmed it denoted the polity or kingdom itself.

The empire was known by various names to different cultures, including Sanfoqi (Chinese), Zabag (Arab), and Melayu (Khmer), adding complexity to its historical study.

Capital Debate

Palembang Hypothesis

The Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD) suggests an origin near modern Palembang, Sumatra. Archaeological findings like ceramics, Indian ware, and Buddhist statues support this, potentially indicating a settlement of floating houses along the Musi River.

While Palembang is a strong candidate, archaeological evidence for a large urban center from the 1st millennium is debated. Some scholars suggest its settlements were primarily impermanent, consisting of floating structures, making definitive archaeological traces scarce.

Alternative Locations

Other theories propose Muaro Jambi (Jambi) as the capital, citing extensive temple complexes and its connection to gold trade routes. Chaiya (Thailand) is another possibility, indicated by Mahayana Buddhist artwork and inscriptions.

The Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds, a significant Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist site, suggest a potential religious and administrative center. Chaiya's association with Srivijayan art also fuels debate, though most scholars discount it as the primary capital.

Central Javanese Connection

During the 8th century, the Sailendra dynasty of Central Java appears to have exerted influence over Srivijaya, possibly ruling it as a subordinate or even relocating its capital. Arabic sources mention this Javanese rule over Srivijaya and other regions.

Historical Trajectory

Formation and Expansion

Srivijaya emerged around 500 CE, with its foundational inscription dating to 683 AD. Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa led a significant maritime expedition, consolidating power and integrating regions like the Melayu Kingdom, known for its gold resources.

The empire's structure involved a core capital region, a resource-rich hinterland, and networks of allied or subordinate polities. The siddhayatra inscriptions detail rituals and military campaigns aimed at securing wealth and influence.

Regional Dominance & Decline

Srivijaya exerted hegemony over key trade routes, engaging in diplomacy and trade with China, India, and the Middle East. Its influence extended across Maritime Southeast Asia, fostering cultural and religious exchange.

However, Srivijaya faced significant challenges, notably the Chola invasions around 1025 AD, which weakened its control and likely contributed to its eventual fragmentation. While Chinese sources continued to mention entities like Sanfoqi, the original Srivijayan polity gradually faded.

Historiographical Rediscovery

The history of Srivijaya was largely lost until the early 20th century when scholars like George Cœdès began deciphering inscriptions and Chinese records. This reconstruction relied heavily on textual analysis, as physical evidence remains limited.

The interpretation of Srivijayan history involves piecing together fragmented evidence from various cultures, including Old Malay inscriptions, Chinese annals, and Arab accounts. The debate over its capital and precise extent highlights the challenges inherent in studying ancient maritime empires.

Enduring Legacy

Maritime Trade Hub

Srivijaya's mastery of maritime trade routes, particularly the Strait of Malacca, positioned it as a crucial intermediary between East Asia, India, and the Middle East. This control fueled its economic prosperity and regional influence.

Center of Buddhism

The empire played a pivotal role in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout Southeast Asia. It hosted numerous monks and scholars, serving as a significant learning center for Buddhist philosophy and practice.

Cultural Synthesis

Srivijaya facilitated a rich synthesis of local Malay traditions with influences from Indian religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) and Chinese culture. This cultural exchange shaped the development of subsequent states in the region.

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References

Kedukan Bukit inscription 10th line: ÅrÄ«vijaya jaya siddhayÄtra subhiká¹£a nityakÄla (... Glorious Sriwijaya! prosperity and riches...)

Het sultanaat Palembang 1811 â 1825, M.O. Wolders, Kon. Inst. voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Den Haag 1975

Ahmad Rapanie, Cahyo Sulistianingsih, Ribuan Nata, "Kerajaan Sriwijaya, Beberapa Situs dan Temuannya", Museum Negeri Sumatera Selatan, Dinas Pendidikan Provinsi Sumatera Selatan.

Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71

History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000â1800 by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43

Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300â1800 by John N. Miksic p.147

Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71

Casparis, J.G., (1956), Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D., Dinas Purbakala Republik Indonesia, Bandung: Masa Baru.

Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the expansion Islam 7thâ11th centuries by AndrÃ© Wink p. 226

Chen Jiarong and Qian Jiang, Zhufanzhi zhubu [Treatise on the Foreign Barbarians] (Hongkong: Hongkong University Press), p. 47.

Tu Youxiang, Zhou Qufei : Lingwai daida [Answers from beyond the Southern Mountains] (Shanghai: Yuandong chubanshe, 1996), p. 42.

Titik Temu, Jejak Peradaban di Tepi Batanghari, Photograph and artifact exhibition of Muara Jambi Archaeological site, Bentara Budaya Jakarta, 9â11 November 2006

Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 72.

Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 73.

Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67

Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under SÅ«ryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318â336, Brill Publishers

R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King RÄjendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338â342, Artibus Asiae Publishers

A full list of references for this article are available at the Srivijaya Wikipedia page

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This is not historical or academic advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional historical research, archaeological consultation, or academic study. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified historians and archaeologists for specific research needs. Never disregard professional advice because of something you have read on this website.

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Srivijaya: Maritime Nexus

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ℹ️

⛵ Thalassocratic Power

🌏 Regional Influence

💰 Economic Engine

Etymology 🔤

📜 Sanskrit Roots

🤔 Historical Interpretation

Capital Debate 🏛️

📍 Palembang Hypothesis

🗺️ Alternative Locations

👑 Central Javanese Connection

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🚀 Formation and Expansion

⚔️ Regional Dominance & Decline

📖 Historiographical Rediscovery

Enduring Legacy 🌟

🌐 Maritime Trade Hub

🧘 Center of Buddhism

🏛️ Cultural Synthesis

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Thalassocratic Power

Regional Influence

Economic Engine

Etymology

Sanskrit Roots

Historical Interpretation

Capital Debate

Palembang Hypothesis

Alternative Locations

Central Javanese Connection

Historical Trajectory

Formation and Expansion

Regional Dominance & Decline

Historiographical Rediscovery

Enduring Legacy

Maritime Trade Hub

Center of Buddhism

Cultural Synthesis

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice