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India's Federal Tapestry

An analytical overview of the intricate administrative geography of India, from historical evolution to contemporary governance structures.

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Federal Overview

A Federal Union

India operates as a federal union, a constitutional arrangement that distributes powers between a central authority and its constituent units. Currently, the nation comprises 28 states and 8 union territories, totaling 36 distinct subnational entities. This structure reflects a complex balance of centralized governance and regional autonomy, designed to accommodate India's vast linguistic, cultural, and geographical diversity.[1]

Dual Governance Model

The administrative divisions of India are fundamentally categorized into two types: states and union territories. States are self-governing administrative divisions, each possessing its own elected state government and legislature. In contrast, union territories are directly administered by the Union Government, although a few have been granted their own representative territorial governments to manage local affairs.[a] This dual system allows for tailored governance based on the unique needs and historical contexts of each region.

Hierarchical Subdivisions

Beyond the primary division into states and union territories, India's administrative framework extends to finer granularities. These subnational entities are further subdivided into approximately 800 districts. Each district, in turn, is broken down into smaller administrative divisions, ensuring effective local governance and service delivery across the expansive nation. This multi-tiered structure facilitates the implementation of policies and programs at the grassroots level.[2]

Historical Foundations

British Raj Divisions (1876-1919)

The British Raj was a highly intricate political entity, characterized by a diverse array of imperial divisions and states with varying degrees of autonomy. Upon its establishment in 1876, it comprised 584 constituent princely states and territories directly governed by the Crown. The entire empire was broadly categorized into provinces and agencies. Provinces were under the direct rule of the Emperor of India, represented by a Governor or Lieutenant-Governor, who also served as the head of government for these territories and the Emperor's representative to the constituent states within the province. Chief Commissioner's provinces, on the other hand, were directly ruled by the Government of India without a local legislature or high court. Agencies and residencies were imperial structures organizing numerous princely states, with an Agent to the Governor-General (AGG) acting as the Emperor's representative to these states.

Evolution of Provincial Autonomy (1919-1935)

The enactment of the fourth Government of India Act in 1919 marked significant changes in the administrative landscape. Provincial legislatures transitioned from nominated bodies to elected ones, and some provinces were granted bicameral legislatures. All provinces were elevated to governorships, and all lieutenant governors became governors. Burma was accorded a special status, becoming an autonomous province. A pivotal development was the establishment of the Chamber of Princes by Emperor George V in 1920, which led to the creation of numerous new agencies from the states previously part of provinces, granting them direct relations with the Emperor rather than through provincial governors. This effectively separated all princely states from the direct administrative control of the provinces, leaving provinces solely with territories under direct Crown rule.

Towards Independence (1935-1947)

The final Government of India Act, enacted by the Crown in 1935, granted full autonomy to Indian provinces. This meant provincial laws no longer required the assent of the governor-general. The Act also established the office of a Premier in each province, who served as the new head of government and was accountable to the provincial legislature. During this period, new provinces such as Orissa and Sind were carved out from Bihar and Bombay, respectively. The Province of Burma, which had previously functioned as an autonomous province of India, was formally separated from the Indian Empire and established as the Crown Colony of Burma. The Indian Empire was dissolved in 1947, leading to the establishment of the Union of India from nine former Indian provinces and 562 former Indian states.

Post-Independence Evolution

Integration of Princely States (1947-1950)

Following India's independence, a monumental task was the political integration of the princely states into the new Indian Union between 1947 and 1950. Most of these states were merged into existing provinces, while others were organized into new provinces and states, such as Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Malwa Union, Vindhya Pradesh, and Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), formed from multiple princely states. A select few, including Mysore, Hyderabad, Bhopal, and Bilaspur, retained their status as separate states.[3]

The Constitution of India, effective January 26, 1950, declared India a sovereign democratic republic and a "Union of States." It categorized states into four main types:

  • Part A States: These were the former governors' provinces of British India, governed by an elected governor and state legislature. Examples included Assam, Bihar, Bombay, East Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
  • Part B States: Comprising former princely states or groups thereof, these were governed by a rajpramukh (usually a ruler of a constituent state) appointed by the President of India, alongside an elected legislature. Notable examples were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, PEPSU, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore–Cochin.
  • Part C States: This category included former chief commissioners' provinces and some princely states, each governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. This group included Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg State, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura, and Vindhya Pradesh.
  • Part D State: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands constituted the sole Part D state, administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the Union Government.

Linguistic Reorganization (1951-1956)

The period between 1951 and 1956 saw significant territorial adjustments, largely driven by linguistic considerations. The Andhra State was formed on October 1, 1953, from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State.[4] French enclaves like Chandernagore were transferred to West Bengal in 1954, and Pondicherry (comprising Pondichéry, Karikal, Yanaon, and Mahé) was transferred to India, later becoming a union territory in 1962.[5] Similarly, Portuguese-held enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli were liberated and annexed, becoming a Union Territory in 1961.[6][7][8][9]

The landmark States Reorganisation Act of 1956 fundamentally reshaped the administrative map of India along linguistic lines.[3] This act led to:

  • Madras State retaining its name, with Kanyakumari district added from Travancore–Cochin.
  • Andhra Pradesh being created by merging Andhra State with Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State.
  • Kerala's formation by merging Malabar district and Kasaragod taluk from Madras State with Travancore–Cochin.
  • Mysore State's reorganization, incorporating districts from Madras, Bombay, and Hyderabad States, along with Coorg State.
  • The Laccadive, Aminidivi, and Minicoy Islands being united into the union territory of Lakshadweep.
  • Bombay State's enlargement with Saurashtra and Kutch States, and Marathi-speaking districts from Madhya Pradesh and Hyderabad State.
  • Territorial adjustments for Rajasthan, Punjab, and West Bengal.

Contemporary Realignments (Post-1956)

The post-1956 era continued to witness the creation of new states and union territories, reflecting ongoing administrative and socio-political dynamics. On May 1, 1960, Bombay State was bifurcated into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra.[10] Nagaland achieved statehood on December 1, 1963.[11] The Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 led to the formation of Haryana and the transfer of northern Punjab districts to Himachal Pradesh, with Chandigarh designated as a union territory and shared capital.[12][13]

  • Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1969.
  • Manipur, Meghalaya, and Tripura were formed on January 21, 1972.[14]
  • Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1973.
  • Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian Union on May 16, 1975, with the abolition of its monarchy.[15]
  • Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became states on February 20, 1987, followed by Goa on May 30, 1987. The northern exclaves of the erstwhile union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu became a separate union territory as Daman and Diu.[16]
  • In November 2000, three new states were created: Chhattisgarh (from eastern Madhya Pradesh), Uttaranchal (from northwest Uttar Pradesh, renamed Uttarakhand in 2007), and Jharkhand (from southern Bihar districts).[17][18][19][20]
  • Pondicherry was renamed Puducherry in 2007, and Orissa was renamed Odisha in 2011.
  • Telangana was created on June 2, 2014, from ten districts of north-western Andhra Pradesh.[21][22]
  • In August 2019, the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, reorganized the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories: Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh, effective October 31, 2019.[23]
  • In November 2019, the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli were merged into a single union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, effective January 26, 2020.[24][25][26]

Current States

India's 28 states are the primary administrative divisions, each with its own elected government and significant autonomy. They vary widely in population, area, and linguistic diversity.

States of India at a Glance

State ISO Vehicle Code Zone Capital Largest City Statehood Population (2011)[27][28] Area (km2) Official Languages[29] Additional Official Languages[29]
Andhra Pradesh IN-AP AP Southern Amaravati Visakhapatnam 1 November 1956 49,506,799 162,975 Telugu Urdu[30]
Arunachal Pradesh IN-AR AR North-Eastern Itanagar 20 February 1987 1,383,727 83,743 English —
Assam IN-AS AS North-Eastern Dispur Guwahati 26 January 1950 31,205,576 78,438 Assamese, Boro Bengali, Meitei[31]
Bihar IN-BR BR Eastern Patna 26 January 1950 104,099,452 94,163 Hindi Urdu
Chhattisgarh IN-CG CG Central Raipur[b] 1 November 2000 25,545,198 135,194 Hindi Chhattisgarhi
Goa IN-GA GA Western Panaji Vasco da Gama 30 May 1987 1,458,545 3,702 Konkani Marathi
Gujarat IN-GJ GJ Western Gandhinagar Ahmedabad 1 May 1960 60,439,692 196,024 Gujarati, Hindi —
Haryana IN-HR HR Northern Chandigarh Faridabad 1 November 1966 25,351,462 44,212 Hindi Punjabi[32]
Himachal Pradesh IN-HP HP Northern Shimla (Summer)
Dharamshala (Winter)[33]		 Shimla 25 January 1971 6,864,602 55,673 Hindi Sanskrit[34]
Jharkhand IN-JH JH Eastern Ranchi Jamshedpur 15 November 2000 32,988,134 79,714 Hindi Angika, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Bhumij, Ho, Kharia, Khortha, Kurmali, Kurukh, Magahi, Maithili, Mundari, Nagpuri, Odia, Santali, Urdu[35][36]
Karnataka IN-KA KA Southern Bengaluru 1 November 1956 61,095,297 191,791 Kannada —
Kerala IN-KL KL Southern Thiruvananthapuram Kochi 1 November 1956 33,406,061 38,863 Malayalam English[37]
Madhya Pradesh IN-MP MP Central Bhopal Indore 1 November 1956 72,626,809 308,252 Hindi —
Maharashtra IN-MH MH Western Mumbai (Summer)
Nagpur (Winter)[38][39]		 Mumbai 1 May 1960 112,374,333 307,713 Marathi —
Manipur IN-MN MN North-Eastern Imphal 21 January 1972 2,855,794 22,327 Meitei English
Meghalaya IN-ML ML North-Eastern Shillong 21 January 1972 2,966,889 22,429 English —
Mizoram IN-MZ MZ North-Eastern Aizawl 20 February 1987 1,097,206 21,081 Mizo, English —
Nagaland IN-NL NL North-Eastern Kohima Dimapur 1 December 1963 1,978,502 16,579 English —
Odisha IN-OD OD Eastern Bhubaneswar 26 January 1950 41,974,218 155,707 Odia —
Punjab IN-PB PB Northern Chandigarh Ludhiana 1 November 1966 27,743,338 50,362 Punjabi —
Rajasthan IN-RJ RJ Northern Jaipur 26 January 1950 68,548,437 342,239 Hindi English
Sikkim IN-SK SK North-Eastern Gangtok 16 May 1975 610,577 7,096 Nepali, Sikkimese, Lepcha, English[40] Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Mukhia, Newari, Rai, Sherpa, Tamang
Tamil Nadu IN-TN TN Southern Chennai 1 November 1956 72,147,030 130,058 Tamil English
Telangana IN-TS TG[41] Southern Hyderabad[c] 2 June 2014 35,193,978[45] 112,077[45] Telugu Urdu[46]
Tripura IN-TR TR North-Eastern Agartala 21 January 1972 3,673,917 10,491 Bengali, English, Kokborok —
Uttar Pradesh IN-UP UP Central Lucknow 26 January 1950 199,812,341 240,928 Hindi Urdu
Uttarakhand IN-UK UK Central Bhararisain (Summer)
Dehradun (Winter)[47]		 Dehradun 9 November 2000 10,086,292 53,483 Hindi Sanskrit[48]
West Bengal IN-WB WB Eastern Kolkata 26 January 1950 91,276,115 88,752 Bengali, English Nepali,[d] Hindi, Odia, Punjabi, Santali, Telugu, Urdu, Kamatapuri, Rajbanshi, Kurmali, Kurukh[e]
Total 1,178,310,321 3,054,066

Union Territories

India's 8 union territories are directly administered by the Union Government, often with a Lieutenant Governor or Administrator appointed by the President. Some, like Delhi and Puducherry, have their own legislative assemblies and councils of ministers, granting them a degree of self-governance.

Union Territories of India at a Glance

Union Territory[49] ISO[50] Vehicle Code[51] Zone[52] Capital[49] Largest City[53] Established[54] Population (2011)[55] Area (km2)[56] Official Languages[57] Additional Official Languages[57]
Andaman and Nicobar Islands IN-AN AN Southern Port Blair 1 November 1956 380,581 8,249 Hindi, English —
Chandigarh IN-CH CH Northern Chandigarh 1 November 1966 1,055,450 114 English —
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu IN-DH DD Western Daman Silvassa 26 January 2020 587,106 603 Hindi, English Gujarati
Delhi IN-DL DL Northern New Delhi Delhi 1 November 1956 16,787,941 1,484 Hindi, English Urdu, Punjabi[58]
Jammu and Kashmir IN-JK JK Northern Srinagar (Summer)
Jammu (Winter)[59]		 Srinagar 31 October 2019 12,258,433 42,241 Dogri, English, Hindi, Kashmiri, Urdu —
Ladakh IN-LA LA Northern Leh (Summer)
Kargil (Winter)[60]		 Leh 31 October 2019 290,492 59,146 Hindi, English —
Lakshadweep IN-LD LD Southern Kavaratti 1 November 1956 64,473 32 English Malayalam
Puducherry IN-PY PY Southern Pondicherry 16 August 1962 1,247,953 479 Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam English, French
Total 32,672,429 112,348

Former Entities

The administrative map of India has undergone continuous transformation since independence, with several states and union territories being reorganized, merged, or elevated in status. Understanding these former entities provides crucial context to the current federal structure.

Former States of India

Prior to the comprehensive States Reorganisation Act of 1956 and subsequent legislative changes, several distinct states existed, often formed from integrated princely states or as temporary administrative arrangements.

State Capital Years Present-day State(s)
Ajmer State Ajmer 1950–1956 Rajasthan
Andhra State Kurnool 1953–1956 Andhra Pradesh
Bhopal State Bhopal 1949–1956 Madhya Pradesh
Bilaspur State Bilaspur 1950–1954 Himachal Pradesh
Bombay State Bombay 1950–1960 Maharashtra, Gujarat, and partially Karnataka
Coorg State Madikeri 1950–1956 Karnataka
East Punjab Shimla (1947–1953)
Chandigarh (1953–1966)		 1947–1966 Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Chandigarh UT
Hyderabad State Hyderabad 1948–1956 Telangana, and partially Maharashtra and Karnataka
Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar (Summer)
Jammu (Winter)		 1952–2019 Jammu and Kashmir UT and Ladakh UT
Kutch State Bhuj 1947–1956 Gujarat
Madhya Bharat Indore (Summer)
Gwalior (Winter)		 1948–1956 Madhya Pradesh
Madras State Madras 1950–1969 Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and partially Karnataka and Kerala
Mysore State Bangalore 1947–1973 Karnataka
Patiala and East Punjab States Union Patiala 1948–1956 Punjab and Haryana
Saurashtra Rajkot 1948–1956 Gujarat
Travancore–Cochin Trivandrum 1949–1956 Kerala and partially Tamil Nadu
Vindhya Pradesh Rewa 1948–1956 Madhya Pradesh

Former Union Territories

Several regions initially administered as Union Territories have since been granted full statehood, reflecting their growth, development, and the aspirations of their populations for greater self-governance within the Indian federal system.

Name Zone Capital Area Begin End Successor(s)
Arunachal Pradesh North-Eastern Itanagar 83,743 km2 (32,333 sq mi) 21 January 1972 20 February 1987 As an Indian state
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Western Silvassa 491 km2 (190 sq mi) 11 August 1961 26 January 2020 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (UT)
Daman and Diu Western Daman 112 km2 (43 sq mi) 30 May 1987 26 January 2020 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (UT)
Goa, Daman and Diu Western Panaji 3,814 km2 (1,473 sq mi) 19 December 1961 30 May 1987 Goa (state), Daman and Diu (UT)
Himachal Pradesh Northern Shimla 55,673 km2 (21,495 sq mi) 1 November 1956 25 January 1971 As an Indian state
Manipur North-Eastern Imphal 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi) 1 November 1956 21 January 1972 As an Indian state
Mizoram North-Eastern Aizawl 21,081 km2 (8,139 sq mi) 21 January 1972 20 February 1987 As an Indian state
Nagaland North-Eastern Kohima 16,579 km2 (6,401 sq mi) 29 November 1957 1 December 1963 As an Indian state
Tripura North-Eastern Agartala 10,491 km2 (4,051 sq mi) 1 November 1956 21 January 1972 As an Indian state

Governance Framework

Constitutional Distribution of Powers

The Constitution of India serves as the foundational document that meticulously delineates the distribution of sovereign executive and legislative powers. These powers are shared between the Union (central) government and the respective state governments concerning the territory of any state.[62] This federal arrangement is designed to ensure both national unity and regional autonomy, allowing states to govern themselves on matters of local importance while adhering to a broader national framework.

Union-State Relations

The Indian federal system is characterized by a dynamic interplay between the Union and state governments. The Constitution specifies three lists for legislative subjects: the Union List (exclusive to the Union), the State List (exclusive to states), and the Concurrent List (where both can legislate, with Union law prevailing in case of conflict). This intricate division of powers ensures that while the Union maintains authority over national interests, states retain significant control over areas such as public order, agriculture, and local governance, fostering a cooperative yet distinct administrative environment.

Administrative Autonomy

States in India enjoy considerable administrative autonomy, with their own elected state governments responsible for day-to-day administration. This includes managing public services, law enforcement, and development initiatives within their borders. Union Territories, while directly governed by the Union, often have administrators or lieutenant governors appointed by the President, and some, like Delhi and Puducherry, have evolved to include elected legislative assemblies and councils of ministers, granting them a hybrid status with elements of self-governance.

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References

References

  1.  Nava Raipur is planned to replace Raipur as the capital city of Chhattisgarh.
  2.  Bengali and Nepali are the official languages in the Darjeeling and Kurseong sub-divisions of the Darjeeling district.
  3.  Hindi, Odia, Punjabi, Santali, Urdu, Kamatapuri, Rajbanshi, Kurmali and Kurukh are treated as additional official languages in blocks, divisions or districts where the speakers exceed 10% of the population.
A full list of references for this article are available at the States and union territories of India Wikipedia page

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