What was the Sultana, and what is its primary historical significance?

The Sultana was a commercial side-wheel steamboat that tragically exploded and sank on the Mississippi River on April 27, 1865. This event resulted in the deaths of 1,864 people, making it the worst maritime disaster in United States history.

When and where was the Sultana constructed, and what was its intended purpose?

The Sultana was constructed of wood in 1863 by the John Litherbury Boatyard in Cincinnati, Ohio. It was originally intended for the lower Mississippi cotton trade.

What were the key specifications of the Sultana steamboat?

The Sultana measured 260 feet (79 meters) in length with a beam of 42 feet (13 meters). It displaced 1,719 short tons (1,559 metric tons) and had a draft of 7 feet (2.1 meters). It was powered by two side-mounted paddle wheels driven by four fire-tube boilers.

What was the Sultana's normal capacity and crew size?

The Sultana normally carried a crew of 85. While designed with a capacity of 376 passengers and cargo, it was carrying significantly more at the time of its disaster.

What was the Sultana's regular route and its role during the American Civil War?

The steamboat typically ran a regular route between St. Louis, Missouri, and New Orleans, Louisiana. During the American Civil War, it was frequently commissioned to transport troops.

What was the approximate number of people on board the Sultana when it sank, and how did this compare to its designed capacity?

At the time of its explosion and sinking, the Sultana was carrying 2,127 people, which was far beyond its designed capacity of 376 passengers and cargo. This severe overcrowding was a major contributing factor to the disaster.

Why was the Sultana disaster largely overshadowed in the press?

The disaster occurred during a period of significant national events. It was overshadowed by the ongoing news and public attention surrounding the end of the Civil War and the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, with the capture and killing of his assassin, John Wilkes Booth, occurring just the day before.

What were the advanced features of the Sultana's boilers, and what risks did they present?

The Sultana was equipped with four fire-tube boilers, introduced in 1848, which could generate twice the steam per fuel load compared to conventional boilers. However, these boilers required careful maintenance of water levels, and their design made them prone to clogging from sediment-laden river water, increasing the risk of metal fatigue and explosion if water levels dropped.

When did the Sultana depart on its final voyage from St. Louis, and what was its initial destination?

The Sultana, under Captain James Cass Mason, departed St. Louis on April 13, 1865, bound for New Orleans.

What significant news did Captain Mason help disseminate during his voyage?

Captain Mason played a role in spreading the news of President Abraham Lincoln's assassination, which had occurred on April 15, 1865. He carried Cairo newspapers south to inform communities that lacked telegraphic communication due to the recently ended Civil War.

What proposal did Captain Reuben Hatch make to Captain Mason in Vicksburg?

Captain Reuben Hatch, the chief quartermaster at Vicksburg, proposed to Captain Mason that he could guarantee a full load of approximately 1,000 paroled Union prisoners if Mason agreed to pay him a kickback. This offer was made to help Mason, who was in need of money.

What was the financial incentive for steamboat captains to transport paroled prisoners?

The U.S. government offered payment to steamboat captains for transporting paroled prisoners north, paying $2.75 per enlisted man and $8 per officer. This payment structure incentivized captains to take on large numbers of passengers.

What problem occurred with one of the Sultana's boilers, and why did it stop in Vicksburg?

About ten hours south of Vicksburg, one of the Sultana's four boilers sprang a leak. The steamboat had to limp into Vicksburg to have the boiler repaired and to pick up its promised load of paroled prisoners.

Why did Captain Mason opt for a temporary repair of the Sultana's boiler instead of a full replacement?

Captain Mason rejected the mechanic's recommendation for a proper repair, which would have taken several days, because he feared losing his lucrative load of paroled prisoners. He believed that if the repair took too long, the prisoners would be sent home on other boats.

Describe the temporary repair made to the Sultana's boiler.

Instead of replacing the damaged section, Captain Mason and his chief engineer had the mechanic hammer back the bulged boiler plate and rivet a patch of lesser thickness over the ruptured seam. This temporary fix was completed in just one day, significantly faster than a proper repair.

How did the loading of paroled prisoners contribute to the Sultana's overcrowding?

The officer in charge of loading, Captain George Augustus Williams, placed every man from the parole camp onto the Sultana, possibly due to confusion with the camp's books and suspicions of bribery from other captains. This resulted in 1,950 paroled prisoners being loaded, far exceeding the ship's legal capacity.

What was the total number of individuals on board the Sultana when it departed Vicksburg?

By the time the Sultana left Vicksburg on the night of April 24, 1865, it was severely overcrowded with a total of 2,127 people. This included 1,950 paroled prisoners, 22 guards, 70 fare-paying passengers, and the 85 crew members.

How did the severe overcrowding impact the physical structure of the Sultana?

The decks were packed so tightly with people that in some areas, they began to creak and sag under the immense weight. Heavy wooden beams had to be installed to support the overloaded decks.

Describe the challenging river conditions the Sultana encountered on its final journey.

The Sultana had to navigate against one of the worst spring floods in the Mississippi River's history. The river overflowed its banks in places, spreading out up to 3 miles wide, with only the tops of trees visible above the powerful, swirling water.

What happened when the Sultana reached Memphis, Tennessee?

Upon arriving in Memphis around 7 p.m. on April 26, 1865, the crew began unloading 120 tons of sugar. Approximately 200 men were left behind in Memphis. The ship then moved slightly upriver to take on coal before resuming its northward journey around 1:00 a.m. the next day.

When and where did the Sultana's boilers explode?

The Sultana's boilers exploded violently around 2:00 a.m. on April 27, 1865, approximately seven miles north of Memphis, Tennessee.

What was the immediate impact of the boiler explosions on the Sultana?

The explosions killed many people instantly. The primary explosion, originating from the top rear of the boilers, tore upwards at a 45-degree angle, destroying the pilothouse and rendering the ship uncontrollable. It also blew a large hole in the steamer's hull.

How did the structural damage from the explosion lead to a fire?

The violent explosion caused the twin smokestacks to fall, one into the hole created by the blast and the other onto the crowded upper deck, collapsing it onto the middle deck. This wreckage, combined with the exposed furnace boxes, ignited, turning the remaining superstructure into a raging inferno.

What happened to the survivors immediately following the explosion and fire?

Survivors panicked and rushed towards the water to escape the flames. However, many were weakened by their time as prisoners and succumbed to drowning or hypothermia in the cold river water. Some survivors clung to each other, going down together.

Which vessel was the first to arrive and begin rescuing survivors after the explosion?

The southbound steamer *Bostona* (No. 2) arrived about half an hour after the explosion, around 2:30 a.m., and rescued scores of survivors.

How did other survivors receive assistance?

Survivors who had floated downriver past Memphis were noticed by crews of docked steamboats and U.S. warships, who immediately launched rescue efforts. Other vessels, including the steamers *Silver Spray*, *Jenny Lind*, and *Pocahontas*, along with the navy ironclad USS *Essex* and the gunboat USS *Tyler*, also joined the rescue operations.

When and where did the Sultana finally sink?

The burned-out hulk of the Sultana drifted about six miles to the west bank of the river and sank around 7:00 a.m. on April 27, 1865, near Mound City and present-day Marion, Arkansas, approximately five hours after the initial explosion.

What were the primary causes of death for survivors who ended up in the water?

Survivors who were forced into the icy spring runoff of the Mississippi River faced death from drowning or hypothermia. Many bodies were never recovered, and some were found downstream as far as Vicksburg.

What is the estimated death toll of the Sultana disaster, and how has it varied?

The exact death toll is uncertain, with recent evidence suggesting 1,169 fatalities. However, various official reports have cited different numbers, including 1,238 (Brigadier General William Hoffman), 1,100 (Bureau of Military Justice), 1,259 (U.S. Congress/War Department), and 1,547 (U.S. Customs Service).

How does recent research estimate the number of survivors compared to older figures?

While the War Department in 1880 placed the number of survivors at 931, more recent research indicates that only about 263 individuals survived the disaster.

Where were the soldiers who perished on the Sultana interred?

The soldiers who died in the disaster were initially interred at the Fort Pickering cemetery on the south shore of Memphis. Later, their bodies were moved to the newly established Memphis National Cemetery on the city's northeast side.

How were the roughly 760 survivors treated after reaching Memphis?

Because Memphis had become a Union supply and recuperation city, numerous local hospitals treated the survivors using the latest medical equipment and trained personnel. Of those treated, only 31 died between April 28 and June 28.

How did the community of Memphis show sympathy for the Sultana victims?

Despite the ongoing Union occupation, Memphis residents displayed sympathy for the victims. The Chicago Opera Troupe, a minstrel group that had been on the Sultana, staged a benefit performance, and the crew of the gunboat *Essex* raised $1,000 for the survivors.

When did survivors begin forming associations and holding reunions?

In December 1885, survivors living in northern states like Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio began attending annual reunions, forming the National Sultana Survivors' Association. A southern group of survivors from Tennessee and Kentucky also began meeting in 1889.

Who was the last known survivor of the Sultana disaster, and when did they pass away?

The last overall survivor was Private Charles M. Eldridge of the 3rd Tennessee Cavalry Regiment, who died at his home on September 8, 1941, at the age of 96, more than 76 years after the disaster. The last northern survivor, Private Jordan Barr, died on May 16, 1938.

What was the official determination regarding the cause of the Sultana disaster?

The official cause was determined to be the mismanagement of water levels in the boilers, compounded by the vessel being severely overcrowded and top-heavy. This led to explosions when water levels dropped and the boat listed, causing water to run out of the boilers, creating hot spots.

According to a 2015 investigation, what three main factors contributed to the Sultana disaster?

A 2015 investigation identified three primary factors: 1) the use of brittle Charcoal Hammered No. 1 metal in the boilers, 2) the sediment-laden Mississippi River water clogging the boilers and creating hot spots, and 3) the design of the tubular boilers, which were difficult to clean and prone to sediment buildup.

What alternative theory regarding sabotage was proposed in 1888?

In 1888, William Streetor claimed that his former business partner, Robert Louden, a Confederate agent, had sabotaged the Sultana using a coal torpedo. Evidence cited included a piece of artillery shell found in the wreck, though this theory is largely disputed by scholars.

Why is the coal torpedo sabotage theory generally dismissed?

Most scholars dismiss the coal torpedo theory because the location of the explosion, from the top rear of the boilers, is inconsistent with sabotage in the firebox below the front of the boilers, which would be the likely point of impact for a coal torpedo.

What other sabotage theory was suggested in 1903?

In 1903, a theory emerged that a Tennessee farmer, angered by Union gunboats not paying for wood, had placed a gunpowder-filled log on his woodpile. The Sultana supposedly mistakenly took this log, but this theory is flawed as the Sultana was a coal-burning vessel, not a wood-burner.

What did the PBS series 'History Detectives' conclude about the Sultana disaster?

The 'History Detectives' episode reviewed evidence, disputed sabotage theories, and focused on why the Sultana was allowed to be so overcrowded. It blamed Captain Reuben Benton Hatch, a corrupt quartermaster with political connections, for the excessive loading.

Why was Captain Frederic Speed, who oversaw the loading of prisoners, ultimately not held accountable?

Captain Frederic Speed was found guilty of overcrowding the Sultana, but the Judge Advocate General of the U.S. Army overturned the verdict. This was because Speed had been at the parole camp all day and had not personally placed any soldier onto the steamboat.

Why was Captain Reuben Hatch able to avoid accountability for his role in the disaster?

Captain Hatch, who orchestrated the bribe with Captain Mason to overload the ship, quickly resigned from service to avoid a court-martial and went into hiding. He escaped justice due to his political connections, including letters of recommendation from President Lincoln and General Ulysses S. Grant.

What is the legacy of the Sultana disaster in terms of memorials?

Monuments and historical markers commemorating the Sultana and its victims have been erected in various locations, including Memphis, Tennessee; Muncie, Indiana; Marion, Arkansas; Vicksburg, Mississippi; Cincinnati, Ohio; Knoxville, Tennessee; Hillsdale, Michigan; and Mansfield, Ohio.

When and where was wreckage believed to be from the Sultana discovered?

In 1982, a local archaeological expedition discovered what was believed to be wreckage from the Sultana, including blackened wooden deck planks and timbers. This discovery was made about 32 feet underground in a soybean field on the Arkansas side, approximately 4 miles from Memphis, indicating how the Mississippi River's course had shifted over time.

When and where was an interim museum dedicated to the Sultana Disaster opened?

An interim Sultana Disaster Museum was opened in Marion, Arkansas, in 2015, marking the 150th anniversary of the disaster. This location is near where the steamboat's remains are buried.

What artistic works have been inspired by the Sultana disaster?

The Sultana disaster has inspired various artistic works, including a mural titled 'The Sultana Departs from Vicksburg' in Vicksburg, Mississippi. Several novels have been written about the event, and musicians like Jay Farrar (Son Volt) and Cory Branan have composed songs referencing the tragedy, with Farrar calling the boat the 'Titanic of the Mississippi'.

What film has been made about the Sultana disaster?

A movie titled 'Remember the Sultana,' detailing the maritime disaster, was released in 2018. It was directed by Mark and Mike Marshall and starred Mackenzie Astin and Sean Astin.

Sultana Steamboat Wiki: The Sultana's Final Voyage: A Chronicle of Tragedy

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Overview

The Vessel

The Sultana was a commercial side-wheel steamboat, a vital mode of transport on the Mississippi River during the 19th century. Constructed in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1863, she was designed for the cotton trade but frequently served military transport duties during the American Civil War.

Key Details

Launched: January 3, 1863
Builder: John Litherbury Boatyard, Cincinnati, Ohio
Port of Registry: United States
Route: St. Louis, Missouri to New Orleans, Louisiana
Tonnage: 1,719 GRT
Length: 260 feet (79 m)
Beam: 42 feet (13 m)
Capacity: 376 passengers and cargo
Crew: 85

The Fate

On April 27, 1865, the Sultana suffered a catastrophic boiler explosion and sank on the Mississippi River, approximately seven miles north of Memphis, Tennessee. This event resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,800 to 2,000 people, making it the deadliest maritime disaster in United States history.

Construction & Design

Boiler Technology

The Sultana was equipped with four fire-tube boilers, a design introduced in 1848 that offered greater steam generation efficiency compared to older models. Each boiler was 18 feet long and 46 inches in diameter, containing 24 five-inch flues.

Inherent Risks

Fire-tube boilers required meticulous maintenance of water levels. Sediment from the Mississippi River frequently clogged the flues, creating hotspots and increasing the risk of metal fatigue and explosion. The wooden construction of steamboats also made them highly susceptible to fire.

Dimensions

The vessel measured 260 feet (79 m) in length with a beam of 42 feet (13 m). Its draft was approximately 7 feet (2.1 m). The ship was propelled by two large, 34-foot diameter paddlewheels.

The Fateful Journey

Background & Overload

After the Civil War's end, the Sultana was tasked with transporting paroled Union prisoners of war from Vicksburg, Mississippi. A corrupt kickback scheme led to the vessel being severely overcrowded, carrying approximately 2,127 people—far exceeding its legal capacity of 376. Many passengers were weakened from their time in Confederate prison camps.

Faulty Repairs

Prior to picking up the prisoners, one of the Sultana's boilers sprang a leak. A rushed, temporary repair was made by hammering back a bulged boiler plate and riveting a patch of lesser thickness. This inadequate fix, driven by the desire to secure the lucrative prisoner transport contract, significantly compromised the boiler's integrity.

The Explosion

Around 2:00 AM on April 27, 1865, approximately seven miles north of Memphis, Tennessee, three of the Sultana's four boilers violently exploded. The blast tore through the ship, igniting fires and causing catastrophic damage. The vessel became a burning hulk, adrift in the powerful spring floodwaters of the Mississippi.

Rescue Efforts

In the chaos, other vessels, including the steamer Bostona (No. 2) and U.S. warships like the USS Essex and USS Tyler, rushed to rescue survivors. Many passengers were forced into the frigid, fast-moving river, succumbing to drowning or hypothermia. The Sultana eventually sank near Marion, Arkansas.

Casualties

The exact number of fatalities remains uncertain, with estimates varying widely. Recent research suggests approximately 1,169 deaths, though official counts ranged up to 1,547. The disaster claimed the lives of soldiers, crew, and civilian passengers, many of whom were never recovered.

Investigating the Causes

Official Findings

The official inquiry attributed the disaster to a combination of factors: the severe overcrowding, the faulty boiler repair, and the effects of "careening" (the boat's listing from side to side) which could have caused water to run out of the boilers, leading to overheating and explosion.

Engineering Analysis

A later investigation highlighted specific engineering issues: the use of "Charcoal Hammered No. 1" metal in boiler construction, known to become brittle; the reliance on sediment-laden Mississippi River water, which clogged boiler flues; and the inherent design flaws of the tubular boilers, which were difficult to clean and prone to forming hotspots.

Alternative Theories

While the official explanation is widely accepted, alternative theories have emerged over time. These include claims of sabotage involving a "coal torpedo" or a gunpowder-filled log, though most historians dismiss these due to lack of evidence and inconsistencies with the explosion's location.

Sabotage Claims: Reports suggested a former Confederate agent may have used a "coal torpedo" or a sabotaged log. However, the explosion's origin point contradicts these theories.
Farmer's Log: A story about a farmer placing a gunpowder-filled log on his woodpile for passing steamboats was discounted as the Sultana was a coal-burner.

Enduring Legacy

Accountability & Memory

Despite the immense loss of life, no individual was ever held formally accountable for the disaster. Captain Reuben Hatch, implicated in the kickback scheme, escaped justice due to political connections. Captain Mason, the Sultana's commander, perished in the event.

Memorials & Museums

Numerous monuments and historical markers across the United States commemorate the Sultana and its victims. An interim museum dedicated to the disaster operates in Marion, Arkansas, with plans for a permanent facility.

Impact on Safety

The Sultana disaster spurred significant reforms in steamboat safety regulations and boiler inspections. The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company was founded in 1866, partly in response to such maritime catastrophes.

In Popular Culture

Artistic Depictions

The tragedy has been captured in various art forms, including murals like "The Sultana Departs from Vicksburg" in Mississippi, which serves as a poignant reminder of the event.

Literature & Music

Numerous books detail the disaster, such as Nancy Hendricks' "Terrible Swift Sword" and Alan Huffman's "Sultana: Surviving the Civil War, Prison, and the Worst Maritime Disaster in American History." Musicians like Jay Farrar and Cory Branan have also created songs inspired by the Sultana's story.

Film

The 2018 film Remember the Sultana brought the historical event to a wider audience, exploring the human stories behind the catastrophe.

References

Sources

The information presented on this page is derived from publicly available data.

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References

Given as the "John Lithoberry Shipyard" on Ohio Historical Marker 18â31 (1999) on the Ohio River at Sawyer Point.

The St. Louis Daily Missouri Democrat, April 29, 1865, states that the "steamer Sultana left New Orleans on Friday evening the 21st, with about seventy cabin passengers, and about eighty five employees on the boat."

Fold3.com website, The Civil War, Sultana Disaster, April 1865, Quartermaster vessel file relating to the Sultana, page 68.

Fold3.com website, The Civil War, Sultana Disaster, April 1865, Quartermaster vessel file relating to the Sultana, pages 68-9.

Fold3.com website, The Civil War, Sultana Disaster, April 1865, Enlisted Branch file (HAAQ 981 EB 1865, page 80

Fold3.com website, The Civil War, Sultana Disaster, April 1865, Enlisted Branch file (HAAQ 981 EB 1865, page 80.

Jennings, Pat "What Happened to the Sultana?" https://www.nationalboard.org/SiteDocuments/General%20Meeting/Jennings.pdf

History Detective Episode on Sultana, http://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/investigation/civil-war-sabotage/

The Tribune

A full list of references for this article are available at the Sultana (steamboat) Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional historical or maritime advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional consultation. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified experts for definitive historical analysis.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Sultana's Final Voyage

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ℹ️

🚢 The Vessel

🗓️ Key Details

💥 The Fate

Construction & Design 🏗️

⚙️ Boiler Technology

⚠️ Inherent Risks

📏 Dimensions

The Fateful Journey 🌊

📜 Background & Overload

🔧 Faulty Repairs

🔥 The Explosion

🆘 Rescue Efforts

🔢 Casualties

Investigating the Causes ❓

⚖️ Official Findings

🔬 Engineering Analysis

🤔 Alternative Theories

Enduring Legacy 🏛️

📜 Accountability & Memory

📍 Memorials & Museums

📈 Impact on Safety

In Popular Culture 🎭

🎨 Artistic Depictions

📚 Literature & Music

🎬 Film

References 📚

🔗 Sources

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References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

The Vessel

Key Details

The Fate

Construction & Design

Boiler Technology

Inherent Risks

Dimensions

The Fateful Journey

Background & Overload

Faulty Repairs

The Explosion

Rescue Efforts

Casualties

Investigating the Causes

Official Findings

Engineering Analysis

Alternative Theories

Enduring Legacy

Accountability & Memory

Memorials & Museums

Impact on Safety

In Popular Culture

Artistic Depictions

Literature & Music

Film

References

Sources

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice