What is the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and where is it anatomically located in the brain?

The temporoparietal junction (TPJ) is a region of the brain situated at the convergence point of the temporal and parietal lobes. It is specifically located at the posterior end of the lateral sulcus, also known as the Sylvian fissure. This area serves as a critical hub for integrating various sensory and cognitive information.

What types of information does the TPJ integrate, and from which systems does it receive input?

The TPJ integrates information from both internal bodily states and the external environment. It receives input from the thalamus, the limbic system, and sensory systems including the visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems. This broad integration allows the TPJ to process a wide range of data.

What are some of the key cognitive functions attributed to the temporoparietal junction?

The TPJ is recognized for its crucial role in several cognitive functions. These include distinguishing between oneself and others, facilitating theory of mind (the ability to understand others' mental states), processing moral decisions, and potentially contributing to experiences like out-of-body phenomena. It acts as a central processing unit for complex social and self-referential cognition.

What are the potential adverse effects associated with damage to the TPJ?

Damage to the TPJ has been linked to adverse effects on an individual's capacity for making moral decisions. It has also been implicated in the occurrence of out-of-body experiences (OBEs). Furthermore, electromagnetic stimulation of the TPJ can experimentally induce such experiences.

Which widespread neurological and psychiatric disorders have been associated with the TPJ?

The TPJ is involved in a variety of widespread disorders. These include anxiety disorders, amnesia, Alzheimer's disease, autism spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia. Dysfunctions in the TPJ can manifest in diverse ways depending on the specific disorder.

How is the TPJ anatomically defined in terms of brain structures?

The TPJ is anatomically composed of the inferior parietal lobule and the posterior (caudal) parts of the superior temporal sulcus. These structures work together to form the junctional area between the temporal and parietal lobes.

Does the TPJ function identically in both hemispheres of the brain?

The brain has two halves, or hemispheres, and the TPJ is present in both. Each hemisphere contains a TPJ, and while they often work in coordination, they can also pertain to distinct aspects of cognitive function, with some roles being more lateralized than others.

What is the primary role of the right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) in cognitive processing?

The right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) is primarily involved in the processing of information related to orienting attention towards new stimuli. It plays a pivotal role in analyzing signals originating from both the individual's own actions and from the external environment.

What example illustrates the impact of rTPJ damage on attention and spatial awareness?

An individual with lesions in their rTPJ might exhibit hemi-neglect, a condition where they lose the ability to pay attention to stimuli on one side of their body, typically the left side. This means they may become unaware of their left limbs, as if they no longer exist, without appropriate treatment.

How does the rTPJ contribute to social cognition, such as empathy and sympathy?

The rTPJ is crucial for social interaction because it helps individuals distinguish between different perspectives on the same situation, a process fundamental to empathy and sympathy. Imaging studies indicate that the coordinated interaction of the rTPJ is necessary for identifying and processing social cues, enabling rapid reactions to social situations.

Which key language processing areas are located within the left temporoparietal junction (lTPJ)?

The left temporoparietal junction (lTPJ) contains two significant anatomical structures involved in language: Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus. These areas are vital for language cognition, processing, and comprehension of both spoken and written language.

What theory proposed by Steven Pinker involves the lTPJ in relation to language?

Steven Pinker theorized that the lTPJ underlies an amodal 'language of thought,' often referred to as Mentalese. In this account, the lTPJ receives external observations, forms connections with memories, and then translates these thoughts into spoken or written language. This concept is further detailed in his book, 'The Language Instinct'.

How does the lTPJ contribute to understanding the mental states of others, such as their beliefs and intentions?

The lTPJ plays a significant role in reasoning about others' beliefs, intentions, and desires. Studies using fMRI have shown activation in the lTPJ when individuals process mental states, such as when inferring whether someone is lying. Lesions in this area can impair the ability to accurately identify deception or false beliefs in others.

What other cognitive function related to identification is associated with the lTPJ?

The lTPJ is also involved in the cognitive process of associating and remembering the names of individuals and objects. This function aids in recognizing and recalling specific entities in our environment.

What neurotransmitter system is implicated in the mentalizing process mediated by the TPJ, and how does it relate to certain disorders?

The dopaminergic-serotonergic system is crucial for the mentalizing process, which involves understanding others' beliefs and predicting their behavior. Disruptions in this system can impair mentalizing and are associated with disorders such as amnesia, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia, highlighting the TPJ's role in these conditions.

How is amnesia defined, and what is the significance of patient H.M. in understanding memory deficits?

Amnesia is defined as a deficit in memory resulting from brain damage, disease, or trauma. Patient H.M., who underwent a temporal lobectomy to treat severe epilepsy, famously developed severe anterograde amnesia, inhibiting his ability to form new long-term memories, while his short-term memory remained largely intact, illustrating the impact on memory formation.

What role does the TPJ play in memory processing, particularly autobiographical memory?

The TPJ is known to be involved in the brain's memory processing system. Specifically, studies have indicated that the right TPJ, along with the right cerebellum, are core components of autobiographical memory. Lower activation of the rTPJ has been observed in patients with certain types of epileptic amnesia.

What are the typical treatment approaches for amnesia?

While many forms of amnesia resolve on their own without specific treatment, therapeutic options can help improve memory function. Cognitive therapy and occupational therapy focus on various methods to enhance a patient's memory, with repetition and practice gradually improving overall memory recall.

How does reduced metabolism in the TPJ relate to cognitive impairments in Alzheimer's disease patients?

Reduced metabolism in the TPJ, along with the superior frontal sulcus, correlates with Alzheimer's patients' diminished ability to perceive themselves from an external, third-person perspective. As TPJ metabolism decreases, the discrepancy between a patient's awareness of their cognitive impairment and its actual severity tends to increase.

What is the 'praxicon,' and how is its connection to the TPJ relevant in Alzheimer's disease and anosognosia?

The praxicon is a mental dictionary of representations for different human actions. The TPJ contains this praxicon, which is essential for distinguishing between one's own actions and those of others. In Alzheimer's patients experiencing anosognosia (unawareness of their deficits), damage to the TPJ may impair this function, preventing them from recognizing their diminished abilities compared to others.

What potential connection has been explored between the TPJ and the perception of social situations in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

Research has investigated whether the TPJ is linked to differences in how individuals with ASD recognize and process socially awkward situations compared to neurotypical individuals. Studies aim to understand if atypical TPJ function contributes to social perception challenges in ASD.

What did a 2015 fMRI study find regarding rTPJ activity in adults with ASD when viewing socially awkward situations?

In a 2015 study, high-functioning adults with ASD and neurotypical controls watched socially awkward situations while undergoing fMRI. While activity in several social cognition regions was similar between groups, activity near the right TPJ, extending into the posterior superior temporal sulcus, showed notable quantitative differences, with the ASD group exhibiting lower activity.

What challenges exist in consistently characterizing neuroimaging differences in ASD related to the TPJ?

Research findings on structural or physiological differences in the TPJ related to ASD can be inconsistent across studies. This inconsistency may stem from various sources of variance. Even with advanced analytical techniques, results have sometimes lacked sufficient discriminative power to reliably classify diagnostic groups, suggesting ASD's complex and heterogeneous nature.

How is the decreased social functioning observed in schizophrenia patients potentially related to the TPJ?

The diminished ability of schizophrenia patients to navigate social situations is often linked to deficits in their theory of mind (ToM) process. Research suggests that the TPJ, a key area for ToM, may be involved in these social cognitive impairments.

What are the varied findings regarding TPJ activation in schizophrenia patients performing theory of mind tasks?

Studies examining TPJ activation during theory of mind tasks in schizophrenia patients have yielded mixed results. Some research indicates decreased TPJ activation, while other studies have found hyperactivity in the TPJ compared to control individuals when performing similar tasks related to understanding social intentions.

What did studies suggest about the lateralization of TPJ changes in schizophrenia and its implications?

Some research found that changes in TPJ activation in schizophrenia patients were lateralized, specifically showing reduced activity in only the right TPJ. Based on the known roles of the right and left TPJ, this finding suggests a more general deficit in the overall mentalizing process, rather than an impairment in understanding basic social intentions.

What connection has been identified between auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia and the TPJ?

The TPJ has been identified as a critical node within the system responsible for auditory-verbal hallucinations (AVH) in schizophrenia. Studies suggest a link between the TPJ's function and the experience of hearing voices.

What specific connectivity change involving the left TPJ was noted in relation to auditory-verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia?

A study found a significant decrease in connectivity between the left TPJ and the right hemispheric homotope of Broca's area in individuals experiencing auditory-verbal hallucinations. Broca's area is known for its role in language production, and this reduced connectivity may be related to the characteristic symptoms of AVH.

What did a recent study suggest about TPJ activity in adolescents compared to adults during an extinction task, and its relation to anxiety disorders?

A recent study observed reduced activity in the TPJ of adolescents compared to adults while performing an extinction task. This finding suggests a potential role for the TPJ in the development or manifestation of anxiety disorders, possibly related to fear processing and regulation.

What is vasopressin, and how is it relevant to social behaviors and the TPJ?

Vasopressin is a neuropeptide hormone known to play a role in regulating social behaviors, including social memory and recognition. Research has explored its connection with cortical areas involved in social interaction, such as the TPJ, to understand its influence on social cognition.

What specific effect did vasopressin have on the left TPJ/Brodmann area 39 in a study involving men and familiarity tasks?

In a study examining men's responses to familiar and unfamiliar social stimuli, the administration of vasopressin caused a localized change in social recognition-related activity in the left TPJ (specifically Brodmann area 39). Vasopressin diminished the heightened activity typically seen in the left TPJ when encountering an unfamiliar face, suggesting it helps associate unfamiliar faces with familiar categories more readily.

What potential therapeutic applications are proposed based on the connection between vasopressin and the TPJ?

The findings suggest that vasopressin or similar compounds could potentially be used to regulate TPJ activity. This approach might offer future therapeutic avenues for disorders characterized by social cognitive impairments, such as autism, social anxiety disorder, and certain symptoms of schizophrenia.

What are the primary methods used in current research investigating the TPJ?

Current research on the TPJ employs a range of methods to understand its physiology and cognitive roles. These include studying the TPJ in individuals with and without lesions, using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to modulate its activity, and employing task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe its activation patterns during cognitive tasks.

What broad areas of cognitive function are extensively studied in relation to the TPJ?

Research into the TPJ is extensive and covers a wide array of cognitive processes. Key areas of investigation include theory of mind, out-of-body experiences, temporal order judgments, morality, and self-processing. Understanding the TPJ is considered crucial due to its involvement in these fundamental cognitive functions.

What is required for theory of mind (ToM) to function effectively, and what role does the TPJ play?

Theory of mind requires the collaboration of functionally related brain regions to distinguish between self and other mental states and to form a comprehensive understanding of them, enabling prediction of behavior. The TPJ is a key component in this process, working alongside other associative regions, and is particularly active in differentiating the mental states of self versus others.

How is the TPJ involved in processing socially relevant cues, and what happens when it is damaged?

The TPJ is involved in processing socially relevant cues, such as gaze direction and goal-directed actions. Studies have shown that lesions to the TPJ can result in an impaired ability to detect another person's beliefs, highlighting its importance in understanding others' mental states.

When does TPJ activation increase in relation to information about others' mental states?

Studies have reported increased activity in the TPJ when individuals absorb information about other people's beliefs, whether through reading or images. This activation is notably less pronounced when observing information related to physical control stimuli, suggesting a specific role in processing mental states.

What is the proposed role of the TPJ in sociocognitive operations, ranging from simple discrimination to empathy?

The TPJ is identified as important for both low-level sociocognitive operations, such as simple discrimination tasks, and high-level operations, like the ability to empathize with others. This indicates its involvement across a spectrum of social cognition.

What is the definition of an out-of-body experience (OBE), and what is its proposed neurological basis involving the TPJ?

An out-of-body experience (OBE) is characterized by the sensation that one's self is located outside their physical body. It is proposed that OBEs result from multi-sensory disintegration within the TPJ, which disrupts the brain's integrated representation of the body and its location in space.

What are the three defining characteristics of an out-of-body experience (OBE)?

An OBE is typically defined by three characteristics: 1) disembodiment, the feeling of being detached from one's body; 2) the impression of seeing the world from a distant, elevated visual-spatial perspective; and 3) the sensation of observing one's own body from this elevated viewpoint.

In which populations are out-of-body experiences (OBEs) most commonly reported?

Out-of-body experiences are most frequently reported by individuals with epilepsy or migraines. However, approximately 10% of the healthy population also experiences an OBE once or twice in their lifetime, often occurring spontaneously and lasting for a short duration.

What is temporal order judgment, and how is the TPJ involved in this cognitive process?

Temporal order judgment involves determining the relative timing or sequence of events, which is crucial for understanding how we process information over time. fMRI studies have shown bilateral activation of the TPJ when individuals identify the order of appearance of two objects, suggesting its role in the brain's 'when' pathway for processing temporal information.

How does the TPJ contribute to moral judgments, particularly concerning the integration of beliefs?

The TPJ plays a role in moral cognition by helping individuals associate emotions with events or individuals, which aids in decision-making. Studies suggest that the right TPJ, in conjunction with theory of mind processes, is involved in moral judgment. Specifically, disrupting the right TPJ with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been shown to reduce the extent to which beliefs are integrated into moral decisions, particularly in scenarios where intent is clear but outcome is affected by belief.

What specific scenario demonstrated the impact of rTPJ disruption on moral judgment regarding beliefs?

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) applied to the rTPJ affected moral judgments in scenarios where a protagonist intentionally acted to cause harm but failed due to an incorrect belief. In such cases, TMS disrupted the integration of the protagonist's belief into the moral judgment, suggesting the rTPJ's specific role in weighing intentions versus outcomes influenced by beliefs.

What is the role of the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) and the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) within the TPJ?

The TPJ is composed of two discrete anatomical regions: the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) and the caudal parts of the superior temporal sulcus (pSTS). Both of these regions are active in distinguishing between the mental states of different individuals, indicating that the TPJ's function in detecting mental states likely results from the combined activity of these two parts.

How does the right TPJ contribute to attentional processes?

The right TPJ is involved in the ventral attention stream, which is crucial for the ability to focus attention on specific stimuli or objectives. The TPJ also plays a role in the interaction and communication between the dorsal and ventral attentional streams.

What is the significance of the TPJ in self-processing?

The TPJ is a crucial structure for self-processing, which involves various aspects of how we perceive and understand ourselves. Neuroimaging studies have shown TPJ activation during tasks related to visuo-spatial perspective-taking of the self, distinguishing self from others, mental imagery of one's own body, and integrating vestibular and multisensory information.

What is the relationship between the TPJ and the 'when' pathway in the brain?

Research on temporal order judgments suggests that the TPJ is involved in the brain's 'when' pathway. Specifically, bilateral activation of the TPJ was observed when identifying the order of appearance of objects, indicating its role in processing the timing of events.

What is the 'praxicon' and its connection to the TPJ?

The praxicon is described as a dictionary of representations for different human actions. The TPJ is understood to contain this praxicon, which is essential for distinguishing between the actions of oneself and those of other people.

How does the TPJ facilitate the association and remembering of names and objects?

The left TPJ is involved in the cognitive process of associating and remembering the names of individuals and objects. This function aids in object recognition and recall.

What did fMRI studies reveal about TPJ activation when identifying the order of appearance of two objects versus characterizing an object by a property?

fMRI studies indicated that when subjects had to determine the order of appearance of two objects, there was bilateral activation of the TPJ. However, when the task involved characterizing an object based on a property, only the left TPJ showed activation, suggesting distinct roles within the TPJ for temporal versus attribute-based processing.

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Precise Location

Anatomical Intersection

The Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ) is a significant area of the brain situated at the confluence of the temporal and parietal lobes. It is strategically positioned at the posterior extent of the lateral sulcus, also known as the Sylvian fissure.

Functional Geography

This region integrates information from diverse neural systems, including the thalamus and the limbic system. It also processes inputs from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory modalities, acting as a central hub for sensory data synthesis.

Key Subdivisions

The TPJ encompasses the inferior parietal lobule and the posterior sections of the superior temporal sulcus. These distinct anatomical components contribute to its multifaceted cognitive roles.

Note: The TPJ comprises two hemispheres, left and right, which often collaborate but also possess specialized functions.

Core Functions

Information Integration

The TPJ is pivotal in collecting and processing extensive information from both the external environment and internal bodily states. This comprehensive data integration is fundamental to its role in higher-order cognition.

Self-Other Distinction

A primary function of the TPJ, particularly the right hemisphere, is facilitating the distinction between oneself and others. This capability is crucial for social interaction and understanding differing perspectives.

Theory of Mind (ToM)

The TPJ is a cornerstone of "Theory of Mind," the capacity to attribute mental states—beliefs, intentions, desires—to oneself and others. This enables complex social reasoning and prediction of behavior.

The Right TPJ

Attentional Orientation

The right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) plays a critical role in directing attention, particularly towards novel stimuli or salient events in the environment. It helps orient cognitive resources effectively.

Social Perception

The rTPJ is vital for processing social cues, including gaze direction and goal-directed actions. It contributes significantly to empathy and sympathy by enabling the simultaneous consideration of multiple perspectives in social situations.

Lesion Implications

Damage to the rTPJ can lead to profound deficits, such as hemi-neglect, where an individual fails to attend to stimuli on the contralateral side of space. This highlights the rTPJ's role in spatial awareness and attentional control.

The Left TPJ

Language Processing

The left temporoparietal junction (lTPJ) houses key language centers, including Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus. These regions are indispensable for comprehending and producing both spoken and written language.

Cognitive Linguistics

The lTPJ is theorized to underpin an "amodal language of thought" or Mentalese. It is proposed to receive external observations, connect them with memory, and translate these cognitive processes into linguistic output.

Intentions and Beliefs

This region is also instrumental in reasoning about others' mental states, such as their beliefs, intentions, and desires. Studies indicate that lesions in the lTPJ can impair the ability to detect deception or false beliefs.

TPJ and Neurological Disorders

Amnesia

TPJ dysfunction is implicated in certain forms of amnesia, particularly those linked to epilepsy. Reduced activation in the rTPJ has been observed in patients with epileptic amnesia, affecting autobiographical memory recall.

Amnesia, a deficit in memory, can result from brain damage or disease. While many cases resolve spontaneously, therapeutic interventions like cognitive and occupational therapy can aid memory improvement by focusing on specific strategies and repetition.

Alzheimer's Disease

Reduced metabolic activity in the TPJ correlates with impaired self-perception in Alzheimer's patients, particularly their ability to recognize their own cognitive deficits (anosognosia). The TPJ's role in the "praxicon" (a lexicon of actions) is crucial for distinguishing self from other actions.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Research suggests potential differences in TPJ activation in individuals with ASD when processing socially awkward situations, often showing hypoactivation in the rTPJ. However, findings are heterogeneous, reflecting the complex nature of ASD.

Studies using fMRI have indicated that adults with ASD may exhibit lower activity in the rTPJ and posterior superior temporal sulcus when viewing socially awkward scenarios. Despite statistical significance, these differences often lack discriminative power, underscoring the syndrome's heterogeneity.

Schizophrenia

The TPJ is implicated in the theory of mind deficits observed in schizophrenia. Studies report varied findings, including decreased or hyperactive TPJ activation during mentalizing tasks. Its connectivity is also linked to auditory hallucinations.

Research indicates abnormal TPJ activation in schizophrenia patients performing social intention tasks. Some studies suggest reduced connectivity between the left TPJ and language production areas, potentially contributing to auditory verbal hallucinations. The directionality of TPJ activity changes (hypo- or hyperactivity) remains an area of active investigation.

Current Research Frontiers

Theory of Mind Mechanisms

Ongoing research utilizes fMRI and lesion studies to elucidate the TPJ's role in Theory of Mind. The TPJ, particularly its left and right components, is central to distinguishing self from other mental states and processing social cues like gaze direction.

The TPJ's involvement in attributing beliefs, intentions, and desires is extensively studied. It is understood to work in concert with other brain regions, such as the medial prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex, to form a comprehensive model of others' mental states. The TPJ is particularly active when processing information about beliefs, distinguishing it from more general mentalizing processes.

Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs)

The TPJ is recognized for its role in self-processing and embodiment. Damage or stimulation of the TPJ, especially the right hemisphere, has been linked to the induction of out-of-body experiences, characterized by a feeling of disembodiment and altered spatial perspective.

OBEs are hypothesized to arise from multisensory disintegration within the TPJ, disrupting the brain's unified representation of the body and its location. This can lead to illusory self-location and altered perspectives, often observed in individuals with neurological conditions like epilepsy or migraines, but also reported in healthy populations.

Temporal Order Judgments

Research indicates that the TPJ is involved in judging the relative timing of spatially separated events. Bilateral TPJ activation is observed during temporal order judgments, suggesting its role in processing the "when" aspect of sensory information.

Morality and Decision-Making

The TPJ, particularly the rTPJ, is implicated in moral cognition. It helps integrate emotional responses with cognitive appraisals of situations, influencing moral judgments, especially those involving an actor's intentions and beliefs.

Studies using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) targeting the rTPJ have shown that disrupting activity in this region can reduce the reliance on an actor's beliefs when making moral judgments. This suggests the TPJ plays a specific role in incorporating intentionality into ethical evaluations.

Therapeutic Avenues

Pharmacological Modulation

Emerging research explores the potential of neuropeptides like vasopressin to modulate TPJ activity. Vasopressin has shown promise in influencing social recognition and potentially treating disorders with social cognitive impairments, such as ASD and schizophrenia.

Studies indicate that vasopressin administration can alter activity in the left TPJ during social recognition tasks. It appears to facilitate the association of unfamiliar faces with familiar categories, suggesting a pathway for targeted pharmacological interventions to improve social processing deficits.

Neuromodulation Techniques

Techniques like transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) are being investigated for their ability to modulate TPJ function. While TMS can influence specific cognitive processes mediated by the TPJ, its therapeutic application for disorders is still under development.

Cognitive Therapies

For conditions like amnesia where TPJ function is affected, cognitive and occupational therapies aim to enhance memory and compensatory strategies. These approaches focus on retraining cognitive functions and improving daily functioning.

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References

Access: Brain electrodes conjure up ghostly visions: Nature News

A full list of references for this article are available at the Temporoparietal junction Wikipedia page

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The Nexus of Cognition

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Precise Location 📍

🔗 Anatomical Intersection

🌐 Functional Geography

🗂️ Key Subdivisions

Core Functions ⚙️

💡 Information Integration

👥 Self-Other Distinction

🤔 Theory of Mind (ToM)

The Right TPJ ➡️

🧭 Attentional Orientation

🎭 Social Perception

⚠️ Lesion Implications

The Left TPJ ⬅️

🗣️ Language Processing

💬 Cognitive Linguistics

🎯 Intentions and Beliefs

TPJ and Neurological Disorders 🩺

⏳ Amnesia

🌫️ Alzheimer's Disease

🧩 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

⚡ Schizophrenia

Current Research Frontiers 🔬

🧠 Theory of Mind Mechanisms

👻 Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs)

⏱️ Temporal Order Judgments

⚖️ Morality and Decision-Making

Therapeutic Avenues 💊

🔬 Pharmacological Modulation

⚡ Neuromodulation Techniques

🤝 Cognitive Therapies

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Precise Location

Anatomical Intersection

Functional Geography

Key Subdivisions

Core Functions

Information Integration

Self-Other Distinction

Theory of Mind (ToM)

The Right TPJ

Attentional Orientation

Social Perception

Lesion Implications

The Left TPJ

Language Processing

Cognitive Linguistics

Intentions and Beliefs

TPJ and Neurological Disorders

Amnesia

Alzheimer's Disease

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Schizophrenia

Current Research Frontiers

Theory of Mind Mechanisms

Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs)

Temporal Order Judgments

Morality and Decision-Making

Therapeutic Avenues

Pharmacological Modulation

Neuromodulation Techniques

Cognitive Therapies

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice