What is the broadest definition of terrorism?

In its broadest sense, terrorism is defined as the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. This term is primarily used to describe intentional violence during peacetime or war that targets civilians.

When did the terms "terrorist" and "terrorism" originate, and when did they gain widespread international attention?

The terms "terrorist" and "terrorism" originated during the French Revolution in the late 18th century. They gained significant international usage and worldwide attention in the 1970s, particularly due to conflicts like the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Basque conflict, and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

According to the Global Terrorism Database, what was the scale of non-state terrorism between 2000 and 2014?

Between 2000 and 2014, the Global Terrorism Database recorded over 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, which resulted in at least 140,000 deaths.

What are some of the different types of entities that have used terrorism to achieve their objectives?

Terrorism has been employed by various entities, including left-wing and right-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments. In recent decades, hybrid organizations combining military and political functions have also emerged.

How does state terrorism compare in deadliness to non-state terrorism?

State terrorism, which involves the institutionalized use of terror tactics like massacres, genocides, forced disappearances, carpet bombings, and torture, is considered a deadlier form of terrorism than non-state terrorism.

What historical event is associated with the origin of the term "terrorism"?

The term "terrorism" itself originated during the French Revolution, specifically referring to the actions of the Jacobin Club during their period known as the "Reign of Terror."

What did Maximilien Robespierre say about terror during the French Revolution?

Maximilien Robespierre, a Jacobin leader, stated that terror is "nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible," reflecting the justification used for the actions during the Reign of Terror.

What factors contribute to the lack of universal agreement on a definition of terrorism?

The lack of universal agreement stems from the politically and emotionally charged nature of the term, the use of double standards in its application, and disagreements over the nature of terrorist acts and the limits of self-determination.

How does Title 18, Section 2331 of the United States Code define terrorism?

Title 18, Section 2331 of the U.S. Code defines terrorism as acts intended to intimidate or coerce civilians, influence government policy through coercion, or affect government conduct via mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping.

Why has the international community struggled to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism?

The international community has faced difficulties in agreeing on a single, legally binding definition of terrorism for a comprehensive convention due to the politically and emotionally charged nature of the term and differing views on what constitutes a terrorist act.

What did Alex P. Schmid propose as a definition for terrorism in the context of international law?

In 1992, Alex P. Schmid proposed defining terrorism as "peacetime equivalents of war crimes" to the United Nations Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, though this definition was not accepted.

According to Bruce Hoffman, approximately how many different definitions of terrorism were estimated to exist in 2006?

In 2006, it was estimated that there were over 109 different definitions of terrorism.

How did technological developments influence the "birth of modern terrorism" in the late 19th century?

Technological advancements like the pistol and dynamite made possible the relentless onslaught of attacks and assassinations characteristic of 19th-century revolutionary politics, enabling more effective and widespread terrorist actions.

Which organization is arguably the first to use modern terrorist techniques, and what campaign did it initiate?

The Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858, is arguably the first organization to use modern terrorist techniques. It initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, which was one of the first modern terror campaigns using timed explosives to sow fear in metropolitan Britain.

What shift in tactics characterized the Fenian dynamite campaign and the *Ère des attentats* in France?

Both the Fenian dynamite campaign and the *Ère des attentats* in France marked a shift in terrorism from being person-based (targeting specific individuals) to location-based, aiming to sow fear in broader populations or specific areas.

What new forms of terrorism emerged during the *Ère des attentats* in France in the 1890s?

During the *Ère des attentats*, the emergence of "lone wolves" and the birth of mass or indiscriminate terrorism occurred, where perpetrators targeted collective enemies rather than specific individuals, exemplified by Émile Henry's statement about wanting to "strike at random."

According to Bruce Hoffman's analysis, how did the motivation behind terrorist groups change between 1980 and 1995?

Bruce Hoffman noted a significant shift in terrorist group motivation, with religiously motivated groups increasing dramatically. In 1980, only 2 out of 64 terrorist groups were religiously motivated, while by 1995, almost half (26 out of 56) were religiously motivated, with most adhering to Islam.

What did the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals in the U.S. define as the prime purpose of terrorism?

The Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism, under the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, defined terrorism as a tactic or technique using a violent act or threat thereof for the prime purpose of creating overwhelming fear for coercive purposes.

What are the seven categories of disorders and terrorism identified by the U.S. National Advisory Committee?

The seven categories identified were: Civil disorder, Political terrorism, Non-Political terrorism, Anonymous terrorism, Quasi-terrorism, Limited political terrorism, and Official or state terrorism (also known as Structural Terrorism).

How is "quasi-terrorism" distinguished from genuine terrorism according to the classification?

Quasi-terrorism involves activities incidental to crimes of violence that resemble terrorism in form and method but lack the essential ingredient of inducing terror in the immediate victim for political objectives. An example is a fleeing felon taking hostages, whose methods are similar but purposes differ.

What has the Global Terrorism Index identified as the main driver of terrorist attacks globally since 9/11?

According to the Global Terrorism Index, religious extremism has become the main driver of terrorist attacks worldwide since 9/11, overtaking national separatism and leading to a five-fold increase in deaths from terrorist attacks.

Which five countries accounted for eighty percent of all deaths from terrorism in the years following 9/11?

The five countries that accounted for eighty percent of all deaths from terrorism in the years following 9/11 were Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Syria.

What factors have been attributed to the rise of terrorism in Pakistan?

Factors attributed to terrorism in Pakistan include sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia Muslims, the availability of guns and explosives, a "Kalashnikov culture," the influx of ideologically driven Muslims following the war against Soviet-Afghans in the 1980s, and the presence of Islamist insurgent groups like the Taliban and Lashkar-e-Taiba.

What did the Southern Poverty Law Center report regarding domestic terrorism in the United States between 2009 and 2015?

A 2015 Southern Poverty Law Center report found that between 2009 and 2015, more people were killed in the U.S. by non-Islamic domestic terrorists than by jihadists.

What are some of the political or social causes that have motivated terrorism?

Motivations for terrorism include independence or separatist movements, irredentist movements, adoption of specific political philosophies (like socialism, anarchism, or fascism), environmental protection, supremacism of a particular group, ending perceived government oppression, and responding to prior violent acts.

What are the key reasons individuals and groups choose terrorism as a tactic?

Terrorism is chosen as a tactic because it can act as asymmetric warfare to force government concessions, intimidate populations, gain attention and political support, inspire more followers (propaganda of the deed), or provoke hostile over-reactions from enemies.

How did the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 relate to the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)?

The US invasion of Iraq in 2003, conducted as part of the War on Terror, resulted in backlash and instability that enabled the rise of ISIL, which temporarily controlled territory in Iraq and Syria.

What personal and social factors can influence an individual's decision to join a terrorist group?

Personal and social factors include identity affiliation (cultural, ethnic, religious), previous exposure to violence, financial reward, mental illness, social isolation, and the perception that a cause addresses profound injustice or indignity.

What did the study by Paul Gill, John Horgan, and Paige Deckert find regarding the motivations and circumstances of "lone wolf" terrorists?

The study found that 43% of lone-wolf terrorists were motivated by religious beliefs, 32% had pre-existing mental health disorders, many lived alone, 40% were unemployed, and a significant portion experienced disrespect or were victims of assault.

What did Ariel Merari conclude about the psychological profiles of suicide terrorists based on his studies?

Ariel Merari concluded that suicide terrorists were unlikely to be psychologically abnormal, based on his analysis of biographical details and interviews.

According to Yuval Harari, why might modern states be paradoxically more vulnerable to terrorism than pre-modern states?

Harari suggests that modern states' commitment to reducing political violence makes them more vulnerable. Terrorists can threaten the legitimacy of these states by creating political violence, which shocks the population and forces an overreaction, often fulfilling the terrorists' desired outcome.

What is the relationship between political freedom and the prevalence of terrorism, according to research?

Research indicates that terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom and least common in the most democratic nations.

How do jihadist militants view democracy, according to the text?

Jihadist militants exhibit an ambivalent view towards democracy, as they both exploit its values and institutions for their own ends and oppose it ideologically, aiming to establish Islamic rule instead.

What dilemma do democracies face when dealing with homegrown terrorism?

Democracies face a dilemma where maintaining civil liberties might make them appear ineffective against terrorism, while restricting those liberties could undermine their democratic legitimacy and potentially play into the terrorists' goal of fostering anarchy.

What are the common characteristics of groups that plan and carry out deadly terrorist operations like the 9/11 attacks?

Such operations are often planned and executed by close-knit groups, benefiting from efficient telecommunications and information flow, and frequently involving friends, family, and strong social networks.

What did Alan B. Krueger's 2007 study find regarding the socio-economic background of terrorists?

Krueger's study found that terrorists were less likely to come from impoverished backgrounds (28% vs. 33%) and more likely to have at least a high-school education (47% vs. 38%) compared to the general population.

What is the significance of the *Ère des attentats* (1892-1894) in the history of terrorism?

This period in France saw a surge in terrorist acts and introduced key shifts towards modern terrorism, including the rise of "lone wolves" and the development of mass or indiscriminate terrorism, where the target was a collective enemy rather than a specific individual.

What did the Global Terrorism Database identify as the most active terrorist group between 1970 and 2010?

Between 1970 and 2010, the Global Terrorism Database identified Shining Path as the most active terrorist group, responsible for 4,517 attacks, followed by groups like the FMLN, IRA, ETA, and FARC.

How did the perception of "freedom fighters" evolve into "terrorists" for groups like the Afghan Mujahideen?

Groups initially labeled as "freedom fighters" by allies can later be branded "terrorists" by the same entities if alliances shift, as seen with the Afghan Mujahideen who were supported by the US against the Soviets but later became targets of counter-terrorism efforts.

What are the main sources of funding for terrorist organizations?

Major funding sources include state sponsorship, "revolutionary taxes" (essentially protection money), kidnapping for ransom, smuggling, fraud, robbery, and private donations.

What is "revolutionary tax" in the context of terrorist funding?

"Revolutionary tax" is a euphemism for protection money extorted from a population, which also serves as a means of intimidating the target population.

What is the role of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) concerning terrorism?

The Financial Action Task Force is an inter-governmental body mandated since October 2001 to combat terrorist financing.

How do terrorist groups typically plan their attacks?

Terrorist groups usually plan attacks methodically in advance, which can involve training participants, planting undercover agents, raising funds, and utilizing modern telecommunications or traditional courier methods.

What is the significance of targeting national symbols for terrorist groups?

Targeting national symbols is often done by terrorists to gain attention and spread their message, using the media to create a spectacle and manipulate public opinion.

What did Walter Lacquer state about the relationship between terrorism and public relations?

Walter Lacquer wrote that terrorism was "always, to a large extent, about public relations and propaganda," referencing the 19th-century slogan "Propaganda by Deed."

How has the internet impacted the spread of terrorist messages?

The internet has created a new and efficient channel for terrorist groups to spread their messages, leading to a cycle of countermeasures by groups opposing them, and the UN has established online resources to counter this.

What did Margaret Thatcher famously say about the media's role in terrorism?

Margaret Thatcher famously stated that publicity was "the oxygen of terrorism," highlighting the close connection between terrorism and media attention.

What connection has been studied between terrorism and tourism since the 1997 Luxor massacre?

Since the 1997 Luxor massacre, the connection between terrorism and tourism has been studied, noting a shift in targets from politicians and police chiefs in the 1970s to international tourists and visitors in more recent times.

What are some specific types of counterterrorism strategies employed by governments?

Counterterrorism strategies include implementing targeted laws and enhanced police powers, target hardening measures, preemptive or reactive military actions, increased intelligence and surveillance activities, preemptive humanitarian efforts, and more permissive interrogation and detention policies.

What is "terrorism research" or "terrorism studies"?

Terrorism research, also known as terrorism studies, is an academic field dedicated to understanding the causes of terrorism, developing methods for prevention, and analyzing its broader impact, conducted in both military and civilian contexts.

What international agreement was initiated by Kazakhstan's President Nursultan Nazarbayev in 2018 to counterterrorism?

In 2018, Kazakhstan's President Nursultan Nazarbayev initiated the Code of Conduct Towards Achieving a World Free of Terrorism, adopted by the UN General Assembly, aiming to implement commitments and establish a global coalition against terrorism.

Terrorism Wiki: Terrorism: A Critical Examination of its Nature, History, and Global Impact

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Defining Terrorism

Core Concept

Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is characterized by the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. This definition emphasizes intentional violence during peacetime or within the context of war, targeting those not directly involved in combat.

Lack of Consensus

A significant challenge in understanding terrorism is the absence of a universally agreed-upon definition. This stems from the politically charged nature of the term, differing interpretations of violence, and debates surrounding self-determination and state actions.

Psychological Impact

Beyond immediate victims, terrorism aims to instill widespread fear and insecurity. This psychological manipulation seeks to influence decision-makers and public policy, often by targeting densely populated public spaces to maximize societal impact.

Historical Trajectory

Etymological Roots

The term "terrorism" originated during the French Revolution's "Reign of Terror," describing the Jacobins' use of state-sanctioned violence. It gained prominence in the late 20th century, particularly during conflicts in Northern Ireland, the Basque Country, and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Modern Evolution

While acts of politically motivated violence have ancient roots (e.g., Sicarii Zealots, Assassins), modern terrorism evolved with technological advancements like dynamite in the 19th century. The 1970s marked a significant increase in organized terrorist activities, with events like 9/11 dramatically reshaping global perceptions and responses.

Paradigms and Shifts

Scholarly analysis, such as David C. Rapoport's work on "sacred terror," highlights the enduring role of religious motivations. The concept of "New Terrorism," often linked to religious imperatives and potentially indiscriminate violence, contrasts with earlier secular or nationalist movements.

Classifications of Terrorism

Political vs. Non-Political

Terrorism is broadly categorized by motivation. Political terrorism aims to achieve political objectives, while non-political terrorism seeks individual or collective gain without a political agenda. Other distinctions include state terrorism (government-sanctioned violence) and sub-state terrorism (non-state actors).

Ideological Spectrum

Terrorist groups align with various ideologies: nationalist-separatist, religious extremist (including Islamist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish), left-wing, right-wing, and special-interest (e.g., eco-terrorism, anti-abortion violence).

Geographic Scope

Terrorism can be classified as domestic (occurring within a country's borders, perpetrated by citizens) or international (transcending national boundaries, involving foreign actors or targets).

Drivers of Terrorism

Political and Ideological Factors

Core motivations often stem from political grievances, such as claims for self-determination, ethnonationalist frustrations, or the pursuit of specific ideologies (socialism, anarchism, fascism, religious fundamentalism). Terrorism can be a tactic in asymmetric warfare when conventional means are unavailable.

Social and Personal Factors

Individual recruitment is influenced by factors like identity affiliation, exposure to violence, financial incentives, social isolation, perceived injustices, and a desire for social solidarity within a group. The pursuit of martyrdom or a sense of belonging can be powerful motivators.

Strategic Utility

Groups employ terrorism strategically to gain attention for their cause, intimidate populations, provoke overreactions from adversaries (thereby potentially radicalizing more people), and achieve political objectives through fear and coercion.

Methodologies Employed

Conventional Methods

Common tactics include bombings (using improvised explosive devices - IEDs, car bombs, letter bombs), assassinations, hijackings, hostage-taking, kidnappings, and shootings. These methods are often chosen for their potential to maximize casualties and generate widespread fear.

Modern and Emerging Tactics

Contemporary terrorism utilizes cyberattacks (cyberterrorism), bioterrorism, and agro-terrorism. The rise of "lone wolf" attacks, often involving simpler methods like stabbings or vehicle-ramming, presents unique challenges for security forces.

Media and Spectacle

Terrorists often leverage mass media to amplify their message and create a spectacle, aiming to gain international attention and influence public opinion. Targeting national symbols or high-profile events serves this purpose, turning attacks into significant propaganda events.

Actors in Terrorism

Groups and Cells

Terrorist acts are carried out by individuals, clandestine cells, and organized groups. These entities often benefit from strong social networks, efficient communication, and strategic planning. Historically prominent groups include the IRA, ETA, FARC, and contemporary organizations like ISIS and Al-Qaeda.

The "Lone Wolf" Phenomenon

The rise of "lone wolf" terrorists, individuals acting independently but often inspired by broader ideologies, poses a distinct challenge. Research suggests these actors may be motivated by religious beliefs, personal grievances, or mental health issues, though definitive profiles remain elusive.

State Involvement

States themselves can engage in terrorism (state terrorism) or sponsor non-state groups (state-sponsored terrorism). This can involve providing funding, training, or safe havens, often as part of foreign policy objectives, though such actions are legally complex and debated.

Societal Ramifications

The Debate Over Terminology

The term "terrorism" is inherently pejorative, often used to condemn opponents. This leads to the "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter" dilemma, complicating objective analysis and international consensus. Media outlets often exercise caution in using the term to maintain perceived neutrality.

Impact on Tourism and Society

Terrorist attacks can significantly disrupt tourism, economies, and daily life. The psychological impact extends beyond immediate victims, fostering widespread fear and influencing public policy, sometimes leading to restrictions on civil liberties in the name of security.

Media Symbiosis

Terrorism and the media share a complex relationship. Terrorists seek publicity for their cause, while media coverage, driven by the dramatic nature of attacks, can inadvertently amplify their message. This symbiotic relationship underscores the performative aspect of terrorism.

Counterterrorism Measures

Legal and Policy Frameworks

Responses include targeted legislation, enhanced police powers, intelligence gathering, and surveillance. International agreements aim to foster cooperation, though a universally binding definition of terrorism remains elusive.

Security and Prevention

Physical security measures ("target hardening"), preemptive actions, and robust intelligence operations are key components. Strategies also involve addressing root causes and fostering resilience within communities.

Military and Law Enforcement

While military force can be employed, particularly against larger insurgencies, its effectiveness is debated. Law enforcement actions, including arrests and dismantling networks, are crucial. Research indicates that negotiation and transition to non-violent political processes are common ways terrorist groups end.

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References

18 U.S.C. Â§ 2331

Arie W. Kruglanski and Shira Fishman Current Directions in Psychological Science Vol. 15, No. 1 (February 2006), pp. 45â48

Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press, 2002.

Barry Scheider, Jim Davis, Avoiding the abyss: progress, shortfalls and the way ahead in combatting the WMD threat, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009 p. 60.

shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State", Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. p. 467.

Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2004. Print. p. 243

Shah, S. A. A. (2005). Religious terrorism in other faiths. Strategic Studies, 25(2), 126-141.

Kurtulus, Ersun N. "Terrorism and fear: do terrorists really want to scare?." Critical Studies on Terrorism 10, no. 3 (2017): 501â522.

Drake, Charles JM. "The role of ideology in terrorists' target selection." Terrorism and Political Violence 10, no. 2 (1998): 53â85.

Hoffman, Bruce. "The contrasting ethical foundations of terrorism in the 1980s." Terrorism and Political Violence 1, no. 3 (1989): 361â377, p.8

Tarlow, P.E. (2006). "Tourism and Terrorism". In Wilks J, Pendergast D & Leggat P. (Eds) Tourism in turbulent times: Towards safe experiences for visitors (Advances in Tourism Research), Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 80â82.

Ankony, Robert C., "A New Strategy for America's War on Terrorism", Patrolling magazine, 75th Ranger Regiment Association, Winter 2011, 56â57.

Sewall, Sarah, introduction to The U.S. Army / Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, (2007).

The researchers found 648 terrorist groups active between 1968 and 2006. Of those, 136 splintered and 244 were still active in 2006 (Jones and Libicki, 2008, p. 19)

A full list of references for this article are available at the Terrorism Wikipedia page

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Important Considerations

This content has been generated by an AI model for educational purposes, drawing upon publicly available data. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, the complex and sensitive nature of terrorism necessitates critical engagement with the information presented.

This is not professional advice. The analysis provided does not constitute expert opinion on security, political science, or international relations. Readers are encouraged to consult primary sources and engage with scholarly discourse for a comprehensive understanding of this subject. The creators assume no liability for the interpretation or application of this information.

Terrorism: A Critical Examination

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Terrorism ⚖️

🎯 Core Concept

❓ Lack of Consensus

🧠 Psychological Impact

Historical Trajectory 📜

🇫🇷 Etymological Roots

📈 Modern Evolution

💡 Paradigms and Shifts

Classifications of Terrorism 📚

🏛️ Political vs. Non-Political

🌍 Ideological Spectrum

📍 Geographic Scope

Drivers of Terrorism 💡

⚖️ Political and Ideological Factors

🤝 Social and Personal Factors

📢 Strategic Utility

Methodologies Employed ⚔️

💥 Conventional Methods

💻 Modern and Emerging Tactics

📰 Media and Spectacle

Actors in Terrorism 👤

👥 Groups and Cells

👤 The "Lone Wolf" Phenomenon

🏛️ State Involvement

Societal Ramifications 🌍

⚖️ The Debate Over Terminology

✈️ Impact on Tourism and Society

📊 Media Symbiosis

Counterterrorism Measures 🛡️

📜 Legal and Policy Frameworks

🛡️ Security and Prevention

⚔️ Military and Law Enforcement

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Considerations

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Terrorism

Core Concept

Lack of Consensus

Psychological Impact

Historical Trajectory

Etymological Roots

Modern Evolution

Paradigms and Shifts

Classifications of Terrorism

Political vs. Non-Political

Ideological Spectrum

Geographic Scope

Drivers of Terrorism

Political and Ideological Factors

Social and Personal Factors

Strategic Utility

Methodologies Employed

Conventional Methods

Modern and Emerging Tactics

Media and Spectacle

Actors in Terrorism

Groups and Cells

The "Lone Wolf" Phenomenon

State Involvement

Societal Ramifications

The Debate Over Terminology

Impact on Tourism and Society

Media Symbiosis

Counterterrorism Measures

Legal and Policy Frameworks

Security and Prevention

Military and Law Enforcement

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Considerations