What is the primary focus of textual criticism?

Textual criticism is a field within textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that concentrates on identifying and analyzing textual variants, which are the different versions of a text found in manuscripts or printed books. Its aim is to understand how texts change over time and to reconstruct the most accurate version of the original work.

What is the scope of texts that textual criticism can address?

The scope of textual criticism is vast, covering texts from the earliest forms of writing, such as cuneiform impressed on clay, to multiple unpublished versions of contemporary works created in the 21st century. It applies to any text that has been transmitted through copies or editions.

Why were unintentional alterations common in the manual copying of manuscripts?

Unintentional alterations frequently occurred because scribes, who were often paid copyists, might have mimicked the shapes of letters without fully understanding the meaning of the text. This lack of comprehension could lead to errors during the process of hand-copying.

Besides unintentional errors, what other reasons might lead to alterations in texts?

Texts can also be altered intentionally, for example, through the censoring of printed works for political, religious, or cultural reasons. These deliberate changes can also affect the transmission history of a text.

What is the ultimate objective of a textual critic's work?

The ultimate objective of a textual critic is to provide a deeper understanding of how a text and its various versions were created and transmitted historically. This often culminates in the production of a critical edition, which presents a scholarly curated version of the text.

What is meant by the 'urtext' or 'archetype' in textual criticism?

The 'urtext,' 'archetype,' or 'autograph' refers to the theorized original text that a scholar aims to reconstruct. However, it's important to note that not all texts necessarily have a single, identifiable original, particularly if they originated from oral traditions before being written down.

How far back does the practice of textual criticism date?

Textual criticism has been practiced for over two thousand years, with its roots tracing back to the librarians of Hellenistic Alexandria in the last two centuries BC. These early scholars were focused on preserving the works of antiquity.

Which Renaissance humanists were significant figures in early textual criticism?

Key Renaissance humanists involved in textual criticism included Desiderius Erasmus, who edited the Greek New Testament, and scholars like Petrarch and Poggio Bracciolini, who collected and edited Latin manuscripts. Lorenzo Valla's work on the Donation of Constantine also exemplified critical textual inquiry.

Why have the works of William Shakespeare been a significant area for textual criticism?

Shakespeare's works are a rich ground for textual criticism due to the considerable variations found in the transmitted texts. The effort and expense involved in producing superior editions of his plays and poems have also made them a consistent focus for scholarly attention.

According to Paul Maas, what is the fundamental problem addressed by textual criticism?

Paul Maas highlighted that we lack original, author-written manuscripts for many classical writers, and surviving copies are separated from the originals by an unknown number of intermediate copies, making them of questionable trustworthiness. The core problem is reconstructing the original text as closely as possible from these imperfect sources.

What is a 'critical edition' and what does it typically include?

A critical edition is the scholarly product of textual criticism, presenting the text that the editor has determined most closely approximates the original work. It is usually accompanied by a critical apparatus, which details the evidence used, the editor's analysis, and a record of rejected variants.

What is the difference between 'lower criticism' and 'higher criticism' in textual scholarship?

In some fields, 'lower criticism' specifically refers to textual criticism, which focuses on establishing the accurate wording of a text. 'Higher criticism,' on the other hand, deals with broader questions such as authorship, date, and place of composition of the original text.

What is the principle behind the method of eclecticism in textual criticism?

Eclecticism involves consulting a wide variety of textual witnesses, based on the principle that diverse transmission histories are less likely to reproduce the same errors. By comparing these witnesses, critics can infer readings that are closer to the original text.

How does external evidence factor into textual criticism?

External evidence considers the physical characteristics of each manuscript or witness, such as its age, source, and relationship to other known witnesses. Critics often favor readings supported by the oldest or most geographically diverse manuscripts, as these are presumed to have fewer accumulated errors.

What is meant by 'internal evidence' in textual criticism?

Internal evidence refers to clues derived from the text itself, independent of the physical document. This includes considerations like the principle of 'lectio brevior' (shorter reading) or 'lectio difficilior' (more difficult reading), which suggest scribal tendencies to add or harmonize text.

What are some of the 'canons' or guidelines developed for textual criticism?

Scholars like Johann Albrecht Bengel, Johann Jakob Griesbach, and Brooke Foss Westcott & Fenton Hort developed guidelines, or canons, to aid editorial judgment. Common principles include preferring the harder or shorter reading, and selecting readings that best explain the existence of other variants.

What is stemmatics, and who is associated with its popularization?

Stemmatics, or stemmatology, is a rigorous approach to textual criticism that uses the concept of a 'stemma' or family tree to map the relationships between different manuscript witnesses. Karl Lachmann is credited with significantly contributing to the popularization of this method.

What is the core principle of stemmatics?

The core principle of stemmatics is that a 'community of error implies community of origin.' This means that if two or more witnesses share a number of errors, it is presumed they descend from a common intermediate source, allowing for the reconstruction of a text's lineage.

What are the main steps involved in the stemmatic process?

The stemmatic process typically involves 'recension' (constructing the stemma), followed by 'selection' (choosing the best readings from the closest witnesses to the archetype), and finally 'examination' and 'emendation' (correcting remaining corruptions, sometimes through conjecture).

What are some limitations of the stemmatic method?

Limitations of stemmatics include its assumption that each witness derives from only one predecessor (ignoring contamination), its difficulty when scribes improve texts ('sophistication'), and the challenge of distinguishing correct readings from errors. It also assumes a single authoritative version, which may not always be the case.

What alternative method to stemmatics did Joseph Bédier propose?

Joseph Bédier proposed the 'Best-text editing' method as an alternative to stemmatics. This approach involves selecting a single textual witness judged to be of a 'good' textual state and emending it only for manifest transmission errors, leaving it otherwise unchanged.

What is copy-text editing, and how does it differ from eclecticism?

Copy-text editing involves fixing errors in a chosen base text (the 'copy-text'), often using other witnesses for guidance. While it allows for emendations, decisions are generally resolved in favor of the copy-text, unlike eclecticism which freely combines readings from multiple sources.

What distinction did W. W. Greg make regarding textual readings?

W. W. Greg distinguished between 'substantive' readings, which affect the author's meaning or expression, and 'accidentals,' which relate to formal presentation like spelling and punctuation. He argued that the copy-text should generally govern accidentals, but substantive readings should be determined by broader textual criticism principles.

What is the 'tyranny of the copy-text' as described by Greg?

Greg used the term 'tyranny of the copy-text' to criticize the tendency for editors to rely too heavily and generally on the chosen base text, even for substantive readings. He believed this practice, which vitiated much editorial work, overlooked the need for critical judgment in selecting the best substantive readings.

How did the Greg-Bowers-Tanselle method evolve from Greg's ideas?

Fredson Bowers expanded upon and rigorously applied Greg's rationale of copy-text, and G. Thomas Tanselle further defended and contributed to the method. This approach, known as the Greg-Bowers or Greg-Bowers-Tanselle method, became highly influential in scholarly editing, particularly for American literature.

What is the concept of 'uninfluenced final authorial intention' in editing?

This concept, emphasized by Tanselle and Bowers, suggests that editors should aim to reconstruct the text that the author intended without external pressures or influences, such as publisher demands or censorship. It involves carefully evaluating authorial revisions to distinguish between genuine artistic choices and concessions.

How is textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon?

Textual criticism has been applied to the Book of Mormon, notably by scholars like Ellis Rasmussen and Stanley Larson, and later by the FARMS Critical Text Project led by Royal Skousen. Their work involves digitizing manuscripts, comparing early editions, and analyzing textual variants to establish a dependable text.

What are the main text-types identified in the textual criticism of the New Testament?

The main text-types identified are the Alexandrian (or Neutral), the Western (or Syrian), and the Byzantine. These categories represent different families of manuscripts with distinct characteristics and transmission histories, influencing the textual variants found in the New Testament.

What challenges does the sheer number of New Testament witnesses present for textual criticism?

The vast number of New Testament witnesses (over 5,800 Greek manuscripts alone) makes traditional stemmatics difficult, as many copyists consulted multiple sources. This has led New Testament textual critics to predominantly adopt eclecticism as their primary method.

What is the significance of the Sana'a manuscripts for Quranic textual criticism?

The discovery of the Sana'a manuscripts, dating from the 7th-8th centuries, is significant because their variant readings suggest that the early Quranic text was less stable than traditionally believed. Scholars like Gerd R. Puin have noted unconventional verse orderings and minor textual variations in these fragments.

How has digital technology impacted textual criticism?

Digital tools have enabled faster transcription, archiving, and processing of documents, making aspects of textual criticism more efficient. Standards like the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) and software like Juxta facilitate the comparison and analysis of multiple textual witnesses.

What is the purpose of a critical apparatus in a scholarly edition?

A critical apparatus, typically placed below the main text, serves to document the textual evidence and the editor's decisions. It lists the sources used (sigla), provides analysis of the evidence, and records rejected variants, allowing readers to understand the basis for the edited text.

What is the 'lectio difficilior potior' principle?

Lectio difficilior potior, meaning 'the harder reading is stronger,' is a principle suggesting that scribes were more likely to simplify or harmonize difficult passages than to introduce difficulty. Therefore, the more challenging reading is often considered more likely to be original.

What is homoioteleuton in the context of scribal errors?

Homoioteleuton refers to a scribal error where a copyist skips over a section of text because two words, phrases, or lines share similar endings. This eye-skip omission can lead to significant portions of a manuscript being lost.

How do scholars approach the textual criticism of classical texts compared to biblical texts?

Textual criticism of classical texts often involves fewer witnesses than biblical texts, allowing for methods like stemmatics and copy-text editing. However, the earliest surviving manuscripts of classical works are typically a millennium older than their composition, potentially introducing more textual drift than seen in biblical manuscripts where the time gap is often shorter.

What is the role of phylogenetics in textual criticism?

Phylogenetics, a technique borrowed from biology, is used in textual criticism to determine relationships between manuscript witnesses by grouping them based on shared characteristics, assuming a branching family tree structure. It can be seen as an automated approach to stemmatics, though it does not inherently identify the 'root' or original text.

What is the 'CEAA' and its significance in American textual scholarship?

The CEAA (Center for Editions of American Authors), established by the Modern Language Association in 1963, adopted the Greg-Bowers rationale for scholarly editions. It provided funding and a seal of approval for editions that met its rigorous editorial standards, significantly influencing the field of American literary scholarship.

What is the difference between 'substantive' and 'accidental' readings according to W. W. Greg?

Substantive readings are those that affect the meaning or essence of a text's expression, such as word choice or phrasing. Accidentals, conversely, relate to the formal presentation, including spelling, punctuation, and word division, which compositors might alter based on their own habits.

What is the primary goal of the Greg-Bowers-Tanselle editorial method?

The primary goal of the Greg-Bowers-Tanselle method is to produce a critical text that approximates the author's final intended version as closely as possible, while also respecting the authority of the copy-text for 'accidentals' like spelling and punctuation.

How is the textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible approached, considering its various manuscript traditions?

Textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible involves comparing multiple manuscript traditions, including the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Septuagint, the Peshitta, the Vulgate, the Masoretic Text, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. Editions like Biblia Hebraica Quinta and the Hebrew University Bible are in development to critically analyze these traditions.

What is the significance of the 'Textus Receptus' in New Testament textual criticism?

The Textus Receptus refers to a series of printed Greek New Testament texts, primarily based on the Byzantine text-type, that were used for most Reformation-era translations, such as the King James Version. Modern textual criticism generally favors texts based on older manuscripts, like the Alexandrian text-type.

What challenges arise when applying stemmatics to the New Testament?

The sheer volume and complexity of New Testament manuscript traditions, including instances where scribes combined readings from multiple sources ('contamination'), make the strict application of stemmatics challenging. Consequently, eclecticism is the more commonly employed method.

What is the general consensus among Protestant scholars regarding textual variants and doctrine in the New Testament?

Since the 18th century, many Protestant New Testament scholars have argued that textual variants, despite their number, have not fundamentally affected core doctrines. They maintain that while interpretations of specific passages might be debated, no essential Christian belief or command is jeopardized by these variations.

What is the current state of textual criticism for the Quran?

Textual criticism of the Quran is a developing area of study, partly due to historical Islamic disapproval of applying critical methods to the text. However, discoveries like the Sana'a manuscripts have prompted scholarly investigation into the Quran's textual history and variants.

What legal protections might apply to critical editions of texts?

Critical and scientific editions can be protected by copyright if they demonstrate sufficient originality and creativity in their compilation and annotation. Additionally, in the European Union, a related neighboring right may protect such publications of public domain works, though its implementation varies among member states.

What is the role of software in modern digital textual scholarship?

Software tools like Juxta, the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) guidelines, and LaTeX packages (ledmac, reledmac) aid editors in transcribing, comparing, collating, and typesetting texts and their critical apparatus. These digital resources enhance efficiency and standardization in the field.

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Introduction

Defining the Field

Textual criticism is a specialized discipline within textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism. Its primary focus is the identification and analysis of textual variants—the differences that emerge between various versions of a manuscript or printed text over time. This process is crucial for understanding the creation and historical transmission of written works.

Core Objective

The ultimate goal of textual criticism is to provide a deeper comprehension of a text's origins and its journey through history. This often leads to the creation of a critical edition, a scholarly curated version of the text that aims to represent the original work as closely as possible, free from accumulated errors and alterations.

Scope and Scale

The practice spans millennia, from ancient cuneiform tablets to contemporary digital documents. Textual critics meticulously examine variations introduced by scribes, printers, and editors, whether unintentional errors or deliberate changes like censorship, to reconstruct the most authentic version of a text.

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots

Textual criticism boasts a history stretching back over two thousand years. Early practitioners, such as the librarians in Hellenistic Alexandria during the last two centuries BC, were instrumental in preserving the works of antiquity. This tradition continued through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period with the advent of the printing press.

Renaissance and Beyond

Renaissance humanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Lorenzo Valla significantly advanced the field by applying critical inquiry to classical texts and religious documents, such as Erasmus's work on the Greek New Testament. The study of texts like the Bible and the works of William Shakespeare has consistently driven methodological advancements.

Global Reach

The principles of textual criticism have been applied across diverse cultures and historical periods, from ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt to modern literature. The sheer volume of surviving manuscripts for texts like the Bible presents unique challenges, necessitating sophisticated analytical approaches.

Fundamental Concepts

The Ideal Original

Key concepts include the autograph (the original manuscript written by the author) and the archetype (the earliest traceable ancestor of a manuscript tradition). When autographs are lost, textual critics strive to reconstruct the original text, often referred to as the urtext, as faithfully as possible.

Critical Apparatus

A critical edition presents the reconstructed text along with a critical apparatus. This apparatus details the evidence used (manuscripts, sigla), the editor's analysis of that evidence, and a record of rejected variants, allowing readers to trace the editorial decisions.

Variant Readings

The differences observed between various manuscript copies are termed variant readings. Textual criticism involves analyzing these variants to determine which reading is most likely to represent the author's original intent, considering factors like scribal error and intentional alteration.

The Critical Process

Collation and Recension

The process begins with collation, the systematic comparison of all known textual witnesses to identify differences. This is followed by recension, where manuscripts are grouped based on shared characteristics and errors, often visualized in a stemma codicum (a family tree of manuscripts).

Selection and Emendation

Selection involves choosing the most likely original readings based on the evidence gathered. When no surviving witness preserves the correct reading, emendation (or correction) is applied, sometimes involving conjectural emendations when supported by no extant source.

Balancing Evidence

Textual critics weigh both "external" evidence (manuscript age, provenance, relationships) and "internal" evidence (scribal tendencies, authorial style, linguistic plausibility). When criteria conflict, the critic must exercise judgment to determine the most probable original text.

Methodological Approaches

Eclecticism

This approach consults a wide range of witnesses, assuming that diverse transmission histories reduce the likelihood of identical errors. Readings are selected based on a critical evaluation of individual witnesses, rather than favoring a single manuscript.

Stemmatics

Stemmatics, popularized by Karl Lachmann, aims to reconstruct the text's history through a genealogical tree (stemma). It groups manuscripts by shared errors to infer relationships and identify an archetype, followed by selection and emendation.

Stemmatics relies on the principle that "community of error implies community of origin." By identifying common errors, scholars construct a family tree (stemma codicum) tracing manuscripts back to a single archetype. The process involves recension (constructing the tree), selection (choosing readings), and emendation (correcting corruptions).

Phylogenetics

Borrowed from biology, phylogenetics uses computational methods to analyze textual relationships, essentially automating stemmatics. While powerful for identifying groupings, it typically requires external evidence to establish the "root" or most original text.

Copy-Text Editing

This method selects a base text (the "copy-text"), often the earliest available, and emends it minimally for clear errors. W.W. Greg's rationale distinguishes between "substantive" readings (affecting meaning) and "accidentals" (spelling, punctuation), advocating for independent judgment on substantives.

Greg proposed that the copy-text should generally govern "accidentals," while "substantive" readings should be chosen based on broader critical principles. This approach aims to balance fidelity to a chosen witness with the pursuit of authorial intent, acknowledging that the copy-text itself may contain errors or later alterations.

Methodological Challenges

Subjectivity and Bias

The "canons" of textual criticism, while providing guidance, are open to interpretation. Critics may consciously or unconsciously let aesthetic preferences or theological agendas influence their editorial decisions, leading to potential bias in the reconstructed text.

Contamination and Sophistication

Stemmatics faces challenges like contamination (scribes consulting multiple sources) and sophistication (scribes attempting to "improve" the text). These practices obscure manuscript relationships and complicate the reconstruction process.

Distinguishing Errors

A fundamental assumption is that errors are easily distinguishable from correct readings. However, scribes might produce readings that appear nonsensical but are, in fact, the original text, or they might intentionally correct perceived errors, complicating the editor's task.

Digital Textual Scholarship

Evolving Tools

Digital tools have revolutionized textual criticism, enabling faster transcription, archiving, and analysis. Technologies like the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) provide standardized methods for representing textual features and variants digitally.

Software and Standards

Software such as Juxta, ledmac/eledmac/reledmac, and the Classical Text Editor (CTE) facilitate collation, comparison, and typesetting of critical editions. These tools enhance efficiency and promote interoperability among scholarly projects.

Text Encoding Initiative (TEI): Guidelines for representing texts digitally.
Juxta: Open-source tool for comparing and collating multiple text witnesses.
LaTeX Packages (ledmac, eledmac, reledmac): Tools for typesetting critical editions.
Classical Text Editor (CTE): Word processor for critical editions.
ekdosis: LuaLaTeX package for multilingual critical editions.

Copyright and Editions

Protecting Scholarly Work

Critical and scientific editions can be protected by copyright if they demonstrate sufficient originality and creativity. While simple corrections may not qualify, the extensive notes, analysis, and editorial apparatus accompanying a critical edition can form a distinct, copyrightable work.

European Union Directives

In the EU, neighboring rights can protect critical editions of public domain works, as enabled by Article 5 of the Copyright Term Directive. However, the transposition of these provisions into national law varies among member states.

Sacred Texts

Biblical Texts

Textual criticism has been extensively applied to the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament due to the vast number of surviving manuscripts and variants. Methodologies like stemmatics and eclecticism are crucial for reconstructing these ancient texts, with ongoing efforts for critical editions of various versions.

The Quran

The study of textual criticism for the Quran is an emerging field. Discoveries like the Sana'a manuscripts have provided early evidence suggesting variations in early Quranic texts, prompting scholarly discussion on the text's historical development and stability.

Other Traditions

The principles are also applied to other religious texts, including the Book of Mormon and the Talmud. Each tradition presents unique challenges and requires careful consideration of historical context and available evidence.

Related Disciplines

Foundational Concepts

Textual criticism intersects with various fields, including philology (the study of language in historical texts), literary criticism (analyzing texts), paleography (the study of ancient handwriting), and diplomatics (the study of the structure and style of documents).

Scholarly Pursuits

Related areas include the study of manuscript transmission, the development of biblical canons, and the analysis of apocryphal and pseudepigraphal texts, all contributing to a comprehensive understanding of textual history.

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References

J.J. Griesbach, Novum Testamentum Graece

Sebastian Timpanaro, The Genesis of Lachmann's Method, ed. and trans. by Glenn W. Most (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005) [trans. from Genesi del metodo del Lachmann (Liviana Editrice, 1981)].

Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Lewis, C.T. & Short, C. (1879). A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

The Canterbury Tales Project Official Website

Knittel, Neue Kritiken Ã¼ber den berÃ¼hmten Sprych: Drey sind, die da zeugen im Himmel, der Vater, das Wort, und der heilige Geist, und diese drei sind eins: Braunschweig 1785

Stanley R. Larson, "A Study of Some Textual Variations in the Book of Mormon, Comparing the Original and Printer's MSS., and Comparing the 1830, 1837, and 1840 Editions," unpublished master's thesis (Provo: BYU, 1974).

Robert F. Smith, ed., Book of Mormon Critical Text, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Provo: FARMS, 1986â1987).

The Original Manuscript of the Book of Mormon (Provo: FARMS, 2001); The Printer's Manuscript of the Book of Mormon, 2 vols. (FARMS, 2001).

Hendel, R., "The Oxford Hebrew Bible: Prologue to a New Critical Edition", Vetus Testamentum, vol. 58, no. 3 (2008). pp. 325â326

Shoemaker, Stephen J. "Creating The Quran: A Historical Critical Study" University of California Press, 2022, p. 96-97.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Textual criticism Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This content has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It is based on publicly available data and may not be exhaustive or entirely up-to-date.

This is not academic advice. The information provided herein should not be considered a substitute for professional scholarly consultation or rigorous academic research. Always consult primary sources and expert analyses for definitive understanding.

The creators of this page are not liable for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information presented.

The Scholar's Compass

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction 📜

🔍 Defining the Field

🎯 Core Objective

📜 Scope and Scale

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🏛️ Ancient Roots

✍️ Renaissance and Beyond

🌐 Global Reach

Fundamental Concepts 💡

📜 The Ideal Original

📚 Critical Apparatus

❓ Variant Readings

The Critical Process ⚙️

📋 Collation and Recension

✅ Selection and Emendation

⚖️ Balancing Evidence

Methodological Approaches 🔬

↔️ Eclecticism

🌳 Stemmatics

🧬 Phylogenetics

📄 Copy-Text Editing

Methodological Challenges ⚠️

🤔 Subjectivity and Bias

🔗 Contamination and Sophistication

❓ Distinguishing Errors

Digital Textual Scholarship 💻

🛠️ Evolving Tools

📂 Software and Standards

Copyright and Editions ⚖️

📄 Protecting Scholarly Work

🇪🇺 European Union Directives

Sacred Texts 📖

📖 Biblical Texts

🕌 The Quran

📜 Other Traditions

Related Disciplines 🔗

🧐 Foundational Concepts

📚 Scholarly Pursuits

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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References

📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

Defining the Field

Core Objective

Scope and Scale

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots

Renaissance and Beyond

Global Reach

Fundamental Concepts

The Ideal Original

Critical Apparatus

Variant Readings

The Critical Process

Collation and Recension

Selection and Emendation

Balancing Evidence

Methodological Approaches

Eclecticism

Stemmatics

Phylogenetics

Copy-Text Editing

Methodological Challenges

Subjectivity and Bias

Contamination and Sophistication

Distinguishing Errors

Digital Textual Scholarship

Evolving Tools

Software and Standards

Copyright and Editions

Protecting Scholarly Work

European Union Directives

Sacred Texts

Biblical Texts

The Quran

Other Traditions

Related Disciplines

Foundational Concepts

Scholarly Pursuits

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice