What is Thomism, and who is it named after?

Thomism is a philosophical and theological school of thought that originated from the work and ideas of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Aquinas was a Dominican friar, a Doctor of the Church, and a highly influential philosopher and theologian whose writings continue to be central to Catholic thought.

What is the significance of Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologica in the context of Thomism?

The Summa Theologica is considered one of Thomas Aquinas's most important works, serving as a cornerstone of medieval theology. It remains a primary reference point for the philosophy and theology of the Catholic Church, influencing its doctrines and teachings.

What fundamental principle guided Thomas Aquinas's approach to truth and knowledge?

Thomas Aquinas believed in accepting truth regardless of its source, drawing upon a wide range of philosophical traditions including Greek, Roman, Islamic, and Jewish thinkers. He was a realist, asserting that the world is knowable as it truly is.

How did Aquinas view Aristotle's philosophy in relation to his own work?

Aquinas largely adopted Aristotelian terminology and metaphysics, often affirming Aristotle's views with his own arguments. He wrote extensive commentaries on Aristotle's works and respectfully referred to him as 'the Philosopher'.

Did Aquinas incorporate any neoplatonic ideas into his philosophy?

Yes, Aquinas integrated certain neoplatonic principles, such as the idea that all beings and goodness ultimately participate in and are assimilated to a primary, essential being and good, which he identified as God.

What did Aquinas identify as the fundamental axioms of ontology?

Thomas Aquinas considered the principle of non-contradiction and the principle of causality to be the foundational axioms of ontology. He suggested that any being not contradicting these principles could theoretically exist, even if incorporeal.

What are the three forms of descriptive language Aquinas identified when predicating?

Aquinas identified three forms of predication: univocal, analogical, and equivocal. Univocal language uses a descriptor in the same sense for different objects, equivocal language uses a descriptor with completely different meanings (considered a fallacy), and analogical language uses a descriptor where the meaning changes partially but retains some commonality.

How did Aquinas define 'man' in philosophical terms?

Following Aristotle, Aquinas defined 'man' as a 'rational animal'. This definition identifies the genus as 'animal' and the specific difference as 'rationality', distinguishing humans from other animals.

What are the two primary parts that constitute the 'quiddity' or essence of a thing in Thomistic philosophy?

In Thomistic philosophy, the quiddity or essence of a thing is understood to consist of two parts: prime matter (matter without form) and substantial form. The substantial form is what gives a substance its characteristics and makes it what it is.

How did Aquinas categorize causality, and what are the four types?

Aquinas adopted Aristotle's categorization of causality into four types: the material cause (what a thing is made of), the formal cause (the essence or form of a thing), the efficient cause (what brings a thing into being or causes change), and the final cause (the purpose or end for which a thing exists).

What was Aquinas's argument against an infinite regress of causality?

Aquinas argued that an infinite regress of causality is impossible because such a chain would never accomplish its objective or reach completion. Therefore, he concluded that a first, uncaused cause must exist for anything to be possible.

According to Aquinas, what is the definition of 'the good'?

Following Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Aquinas defined 'the good' as that which all things strive for. He posited that since every real thing has a function or final cause, all real things are inherently good, and evil is understood as a 'lack of good' (privatio boni).

How did Aquinas address the problem of evil?

Aquinas explained the problem of evil by stating that God permits evil to exist so that greater good can come from it, particularly goodness achieved through free will, which is considered superior to predetermined goodness. However, God does not directly cause evil Himself.

What are the 'Five Ways' (quinque viae) proposed by Aquinas?

The Five Ways are Aquinas's arguments for the existence of God, derived from observing the natural world. They are: the argument from motion (unmoved mover), the argument from efficient causality (first cause), the argument from contingency (necessary being), the argument from degree (perfection), and the argument from design (teleological argument).

How did Aquinas view the relationship between faith and reason regarding divine mysteries?

Aquinas believed that truths like the Trinity could only be known through divine revelation (faith). However, he maintained that these revealed truths cannot contradict reason, and that truths knowable by reason, such as God's existence, are considered 'preambles' to faith.

What is the Thomistic understanding of the soul?

In Thomism, the soul is defined as the substantial form of living beings. This means it is the principle that gives life and defines the nature of a living organism. Humans, uniquely, possess an intellectual, rational, and immortal soul.

What are the cardinal virtues according to Aquinas?

Aquinas identified the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude. These virtues are considered natural and universally binding, discoverable through reason and nature.

What are the theological virtues, and how do they differ from cardinal virtues?

The three theological virtues are faith, hope, and charity (or love). Unlike the cardinal virtues, they are supernatural in nature and are distinct because their object is God Himself.

How does Thomistic ethics view the role of divine grace in human actions?

Thomistic ethics posits that humans cannot truly wish for or perform good actions without divine grace. While humans can perform actions that are incidentally good, achieving supernatural good and merit requires God's grace.

What is the Thomistic perspective on emotions or 'passions'?

Thomism takes a moderate view on emotions, defining them as movements of the sensitive appetite triggered by perceived good or evil. It rejects both the Epicurean view that happiness is solely pleasure and the Stoic view that all emotions are inherently vicious, suggesting instead that emotions can be good or bad depending on the love or intention behind them.

What are the four types of law recognized in Thomism?

Thomism recognizes four types of law: eternal law (Divine Wisdom directing all things), natural law (rational participation in eternal law, guiding beings toward their good), human law (laws made by humans for the common good), and divine law (moral imperatives revealed through scripture).

What is the 'peripatetic axiom' that Aquinas cited regarding knowledge?

The peripatetic axiom, cited by Aquinas, states that 'whatever is in our intellect must have previously been in the senses.' This highlights the empiricist foundation of his epistemology, emphasizing that all human knowledge originates from sensory experience.

How did Aquinas's philosophy influence the development of Scholasticism?

Aquinas significantly shifted Scholasticism away from its earlier neoplatonic leanings and towards a greater emphasis on Aristotelian philosophy. This integration of Aristotelian thought with Christian theology became a defining characteristic of later Scholasticism.

What were the main criticisms leveled against Aquinas's teachings in the Middle Ages?

In the Middle Ages, some of Aquinas's positions, particularly his views on hylomorphism and the plurality of substantial forms, were condemned by ecclesiastical authorities in Paris and Oxford in 1277. These condemnations aimed to assert God's absolute power over philosophical principles.

How did Pope Leo XIII contribute to the revival of Thomism?

Pope Leo XIII initiated a significant revival of Thomism in the late 19th century, notably through his 1879 encyclical *Aeterni Patris*. This encyclical emphasized the importance of Aquinas's philosophy and theology, spurring the development of Neothomism.

What is Neo-Scholastic Thomism, and what was its focus?

Neo-Scholastic Thomism, also known as Neo-Thomism, is a revival of Thomistic thought that emerged in the 19th century. It focused on articulating a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to critique modern philosophy and emphasized the ethical and theological aspects of Aquinas's work.

What is 'Existential Thomism', and who is a key proponent?

Existential Thomism, primarily associated with Étienne Gilson, emphasizes the importance of Aquinas's doctrine of being as existence (*actus essendi*). It highlights the originality of Aquinas's thought and tends to view his philosophy as distinctively Christian, sometimes blurring the lines between philosophy and theology.

What is 'River Forest Thomism', and what is its central tenet?

River Forest Thomism, also known as Laval Thomism or Aristotelian Thomism, posits that the natural sciences are epistemologically prior to metaphysics. This school emphasizes the Aristotelian foundations of Aquinas's philosophy and seeks to interpret modern science through an Aristotelian lens.

What is 'Transcendental Thomism', and how does it differ from other schools?

Transcendental Thomism, associated with figures like Joseph Maréchal, Karl Rahner, and Bernard Lonergan, seeks to reconcile Thomism with modern philosophy, particularly Cartesian and Kantian thought. It differs from more traditional schools by engaging more directly with subject-centered approaches and transcendental philosophy.

What is 'Analytical Thomism'?

Analytical Thomism is a philosophical approach that seeks to integrate the methods and concerns of contemporary analytical philosophy with the concepts and thought of Aquinas and his followers. Key figures like John Haldane and Elizabeth Anscombe are associated with this movement, which aims to find a mutual relationship between these traditions.

What were the 'Twenty-Four Thomistic Theses'?

The Twenty-Four Thomistic Theses were a set of propositions formulated by various scholars that Pope Pius X declared in 1914 to clearly express the fundamental principles and core thoughts of Thomas Aquinas. They were intended as safe guidelines for teaching philosophy and theology.

How did Aquinas's view on the eternity of the world connect with Jewish thought?

Aquinas, like both Christian and Jewish theology, argued against the eternity of the world. He sought to demonstrate that Aristotle's arguments for an eternal world were not definitive proofs, a position he articulated by paraphrasing Maimonides' reasoning in 'The Guide for the Perplexed'.

What criticism did the Eastern Orthodox Church have regarding Thomism?

The Eastern Orthodox Church criticized Thomism for prioritizing the works of pagan philosophers like Plato and Aristotle over those of the Church Fathers. This led to the condemnation of Thomism itself at a Patriarchal Synod in 1368, partly in response to its influence on Prochoros Kydones.

What was Vladimir Lossky's critique of the Thomistic interpretation of Transubstantiation?

Vladimir Lossky, an Eastern Orthodox theologian, criticized the Thomistic explanation of Transubstantiation for rationalizing the sacrament and reducing it to an 'atomistic miracle.' He argued that the Orthodox Church does not require a metaphysical theory for the Eucharist, believing Christ's power over the elements is sufficient.

How did Martin Luther criticize the Thomistic method of theological debate?

Martin Luther criticized the Thomistic method for what he perceived as a reliance on 'proof by assertion' and style over substance, characterizing it as based on personal beliefs like 'It seems so to me. I think so. I believe so.' He also suggested this method led to shallowness in theological discussions.

What is the Thomistic view on the relationship between God's being and His essence?

In Thomism, God is unique in that His existence is identical to His essence ('what subsists in God is His existence'). This means God is pure being, not composed of matter, and possesses infinite perfection, which is why He is referred to as 'I Am that I Am'.

What are the transcendental properties of being according to Aquinas?

According to Aquinas, all real things possess the transcendental properties of being, which include oneness (unity), truth, and goodness. Goodness, in this context, implies that all things have a purpose or final cause.

How does Thomism define 'happiness'?

Thomism defines happiness as an operation performed in accordance with perfect virtue. It is considered the supreme good for humans because it represents the attainment or enjoyment of the ultimate good, which is God.

What is the Thomistic understanding of 'virtue'?

Aquinas defines virtue as a good habit, which is a positive quality of a person demonstrated through consistent actions and reactions over time. Virtues are considered good habits that lead to good works.

What is the Thomistic view on the relationship between the senses and the intellect?

Thomism holds that all knowledge acquired by the intellect originates from sensory experience, as encapsulated by the peripatetic axiom: 'whatever is in our intellect must have previously been in the senses.' The intellect abstracts universal concepts from the sensory data processed by the imagination.

What is the Thomistic concept of 'being'?

In Thomistic philosophy, 'being' is defined as 'that which is,' comprising two parts: 'quiddity' (the 'whatness' or essence of a thing) and 'esse' (Latin for 'to be,' referring to existence or reality). Thus, a being is fundamentally an essence that exists.

How does Thomism classify beings based on their mode of existence?

Thomism divides beings into two categories: those that exist 'in themselves' (substances) and those that exist 'in another' (accidents). Substances are things that exist independently, while accidents are qualities or properties that depend on a subject for their existence.

What is the Thomistic view on the nature of the human soul?

The Thomistic view defines the human soul as the substantial form of the body, making it the principle of life, consciousness, and intellect. It is considered rational, immortal, and intrinsically independent of any bodily organ, though it is united with the body.

What are the three conditions necessary for a war to be considered 'just' according to Aquinas?

According to Aquinas, three conditions are necessary for a war to be just: first, the authority of the sovereign commanding the war; second, a just cause, meaning the attacked party deserves it due to some fault; and third, a rightful intention, aiming for the advancement of good or avoidance of evil.

What is the Thomistic concept of 'natural law'?

Natural law, in Thomism, is understood as the rational being's participation in eternal law, implanted by God. It is the light of the intellect that enables us to know what is good and what is evil, guiding our actions toward our proper ends.

What is the Thomistic understanding of God's causality?

Thomism views God as the transcendent cause of the universe and the source of all being. God's causality is considered primary and sustaining, operating through secondary causes (creatures) without being in competition with them, as He causes all things to exist and act according to their natures.

What is the 'analogical way' of speaking about God in Thomism?

The 'analogical way' suggests that because God is infinite and beyond full human comprehension, we can only speak of Him through analogy. This means our understanding of divine attributes like goodness is similar to, but not identical with, how these attributes apply to humans.

How did the condemnation of 1277 impact the study of Aquinas's work?

The condemnation of 1277, issued by Étienne Tempier, Bishop of Paris, listed 219 propositions, including 20 Thomistic ones, that were deemed to violate God's omnipotence. However, this condemnation was later revoked following the canonization of Thomas Aquinas in 1323.

What is the significance of the 'Corpus Thomisticum'?

The Corpus Thomisticum is a collection of Thomas Aquinas's complete works, made available through external links. It serves as a primary resource for studying his philosophical and theological writings.

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Overview

Defining Thomism

Thomism represents the philosophical and theological tradition stemming from the extensive work and thought of Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274), a Dominican friar, philosopher, and Doctor of the Church. It serves as a central reference point for Catholic philosophy and theology, influencing its doctrines and structure.

Aquinas' Legacy

Aquinas' philosophical contributions are notably found in his commentaries on Aristotle and his disputed questions. Theologically, his monumental work, the Summa Theologica, remains a cornerstone of medieval theology and continues to shape Catholic thought. His emphasis on accepting truth regardless of its source is a defining characteristic.

Foundational Principles

Central to Thomism is the belief in the knowability of the world as it is, aligning with philosophical realism. Aquinas integrated Aristotelian metaphysics and terminology, while also incorporating Neoplatonic principles, particularly the idea of participation in being and goodness. This synthesis forms the bedrock of his comprehensive system.

Metaphysics

Axioms of Being

Aquinas identified the principle of non-contradiction and the principle of causality as fundamental axioms of ontology. He posited that any being not contradicting these laws could theoretically exist, including incorporeal entities. This framework underpins his understanding of reality.

Modes of Predication

Thomism distinguishes three modes of predication: univocal (same meaning), analogical (partially same meaning), and equivocal (different meanings). Analogy is crucial for discussing God, as finite language can only approximate divine attributes. This approach allows for meaningful discourse about the transcendent.

Essence and Existence

A core Thomistic concept is the distinction between essence ("whatness") and existence ("is"). A being is defined as "an essence that exists." Aquinas further categorizes existence into essential (substantial) and accidental. Being itself possesses transcendental properties like oneness, truth, and goodness.

Causality

The Four Causes

Following Aristotle, Aquinas articulated four causes essential for understanding any being: the material cause (what it's made of), the formal cause (its essence or form), the efficient cause (what brings it into being), and the final cause (its purpose or end).

The First Cause

Aquinas argued against an infinite regress of causality, asserting the necessity of a First Cause. This uncaused cause, which continuously sustains existence, is identified as God. The chain of causality cannot be infinite; it must originate from a necessary, self-existent being.

Purpose and End

The final cause, or purpose, is integral to Thomistic thought. All things strive towards a final end, and this inherent purpose defines their goodness. Evil, conversely, is understood not as a positive entity but as a privation or lack of good, a defect in purpose or being.

Goodness

The Nature of Good

In Thomism, "the good" is defined as that which all things strive for. Every entity, by virtue of its existence and function, possesses a degree of goodness. This perspective aligns with the Aristotelian concept of teleology, where everything has an inherent purpose.

Evil as Privation

Echoing Augustine, Aquinas defines evil not as a positive force but as privatio boni – the absence or lack of good. Evil arises from a defect in being or purpose, rather than being a distinct ontological category. This understanding addresses the problem of evil within a framework of divine goodness.

God as Essential Goodness

As the ultimate end of all creation, God is considered goodness itself. Love, defined as wishing the good of another, finds its ultimate expression in leading others towards God. This theological perspective underscores the divine nature as the source and embodiment of all goodness.

The Divine

The Five Ways

Aquinas presented five rational arguments for God's existence, known as the quinque viae: the argument from motion (Unmoved Mover), from efficient causality (First Cause), from contingency (Necessary Being), from degree (Argument from Degree), and from design (Teleological Argument).

Divine Attributes

God's existence is identical to His essence. He is described as perfect, infinite, omnipotent, omniscient, immutable, eternal, and pure actuality (actus purus). These attributes reflect His transcendent and absolute nature, distinct from all created reality.

Analogical Knowledge

Due to God's infinite nature, human knowledge of Him is necessarily analogical. We can understand aspects of God through His creation (general revelation) and scripture (special revelation), but always in a manner that finite minds can grasp, using figurative language to convey spiritual truths.

Anthropology

Rational Animal

Thomism defines humans as "rational animals," emphasizing both our biological nature and our capacity for reason. This definition highlights the integration of the physical and intellectual aspects of human existence.

The Soul as Form

The soul is understood as the substantial form of living beings. Aquinas distinguishes between vegetative souls (plants), sensitive souls (animals), and intellectual souls (humans), which possess rationality and immortality. The soul animates and informs the body, constituting a unified substance.

Mind and Sensation

Human knowledge originates from sensory experience. The mind processes sensory data through imagination (phantasms) and intellect, abstracting universal concepts. This epistemological foundation underscores the importance of empirical observation in acquiring knowledge.

Ethics

Happiness and Virtue

Happiness, defined as the operation according to perfect virtue, is the ultimate human good. Virtue itself is a stable, good habit that guides actions and reactions. Thomistic ethics emphasizes the cultivation of virtuous character for achieving fulfillment.

Cardinal and Theological Virtues

The cardinal virtues—prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude—are natural and universally applicable. These are complemented by the supernatural theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity, which orient the soul directly towards God.

Moral Action

Determining the morality of an action requires considering both circumstances and intention. Thomism utilizes the principle of double effect, justifying actions with good primary effects even if a negative secondary effect is foreseen, provided the good outweighs the evil and the evil is not the means to the good.

Law

Fourfold Division

Thomism recognizes four interconnected types of law: Eternal Law (Divine Wisdom directing all things), Natural Law (rational participation in Eternal Law), Human Law (made by humans for the common good), and Divine Law (revealed moral imperatives).

Natural Law

Natural law, imprinted by God on the human intellect, guides us towards good and away from evil. It is accessible through reason and provides fundamental moral principles, such as the Golden Rule, reflecting God's eternal order within creation.

Free Will

Providence and Freedom

Aquinas reconciled divine providence with human free will. He argued that God, as the primary cause, moves voluntary causes according to their nature, preserving their freedom. God's causality does not negate human agency but rather enables it.

Grace and Volition

Thomistic thought posits that human actions, particularly morally good ones, require divine grace. While God's grace enables virtuous acts, the precise relationship between divine causality and human volition has been a subject of ongoing discussion within Thomistic schools.

Epistemology

Knowledge from Senses

Adhering to the peripatetic axiom, Aquinas maintained that all human knowledge originates from sensory experience. The intellect abstracts universal concepts from sensory data (phantasms), forming the basis of our understanding of reality.

Correspondence Theory

Thomistic epistemology aligns with the correspondence theory of truth, asserting that truth lies in the conformity of the intellect's judgment to external reality. Knowledge is thus grounded in the objective existence of things.

Impact

Shift in Scholasticism

Aquinas significantly shifted Scholasticism from Neoplatonism towards Aristotelianism. His synthesis profoundly influenced Catholic thought, establishing Thomism as a dominant philosophical framework with enduring global reach.

Catholic Doctrine

The Catholic Church officially recognized Aquinas' teachings, particularly through Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Aeterni Patris, which initiated a revival known as Neothomism. This movement emphasized the systematic application of Thomistic principles to critique modern philosophical trends.

History

Early Development

The initial period of Thomism (c. 1256–1325) saw both vigorous defense and opposition, including condemnations of certain theses. The Dominican Order consistently championed Aquinas' work, ensuring its continuity within their educational institutions.

Revival and Modernity

Following the Council of Trent and later spurred by Pope Leo XIII's Aeterni Patris, Thomism experienced significant revivals. Neothomism sought to apply Aquinas' thought critically to modern philosophy, influencing Catholic intellectual life throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

Perspectives

Key Thinkers

Influential figures like G.K. Chesterton championed Thomism as a philosophy of common sense. Modern interpretations range from Neo-Scholastic Thomism, emphasizing rigorous systemization, to Existential Thomism, focusing on historical exegesis, and the Cracow Circle's use of modern logic.

Diverse Interpretations

Contemporary Thomism continues to evolve, with scholars exploring diverse interpretations and applications of Aquinas' thought. These include integrating modern logic, emphasizing the act of existence, and examining the compatibility of Thomistic principles with contemporary scientific understanding.

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References

Ludwig Ott, Grundriss der Dogmatik, nova & vetera, Bonn 2005, IV/I Â§ 15

"Weisheipl, James Patrick Athanasius", in The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers(2005), New York: Oxford.

Martin Luther against Henry King of England translated by the Rev. E. S. Buchanan, M.A., BSc New York: Charles A. Swift, 1928

A full list of references for this article are available at the Thomism Wikipedia page

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This is not philosophical or theological advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional consultation, study, or guidance from qualified scholars or theologians. Always consult with experts for specific inquiries related to Thomism or Catholic philosophy and theology.

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The Scholastic Synthesis

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview 🏛️

📜 Defining Thomism

📚 Aquinas' Legacy

🌍 Foundational Principles

Metaphysics 🌌

💡 Axioms of Being

🗣️ Modes of Predication

✨ Essence and Existence

Causality 🔗

🏛️ The Four Causes

➡️ The First Cause

🎯 Purpose and End

Goodness 🌟

✅ The Nature of Good

🚫 Evil as Privation

❤️ God as Essential Goodness

The Divine ☁️

🖐️ The Five Ways

💡 Divine Attributes

🗣️ Analogical Knowledge

Anthropology 👤

🧠 Rational Animal

🌱 The Soul as Form

💭 Mind and Sensation

Ethics ⚖️

😊 Happiness and Virtue

🛡️ Cardinal and Theological Virtues

⚖️ Moral Action

Law 📜

🏛️ Fourfold Division

🌳 Natural Law

Free Will 🕊️

🤝 Providence and Freedom

🎁 Grace and Volition

Epistemology 🧐

🧠 Knowledge from Senses

✅ Correspondence Theory

Impact 🚀

🏛️ Shift in Scholasticism

⛪ Catholic Doctrine

History ⏳

📜 Early Development

💡 Revival and Modernity

Perspectives 👀

✍️ Key Thinkers

🤝 Diverse Interpretations

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Defining Thomism

Aquinas' Legacy

Foundational Principles

Metaphysics

Axioms of Being

Modes of Predication

Essence and Existence

Causality

The Four Causes

The First Cause

Purpose and End

Goodness

The Nature of Good

Evil as Privation

God as Essential Goodness

The Divine

The Five Ways

Divine Attributes

Analogical Knowledge

Anthropology

Rational Animal

The Soul as Form

Mind and Sensation

Ethics

Happiness and Virtue

Cardinal and Theological Virtues

Moral Action

Law

Fourfold Division

Natural Law

Free Will

Providence and Freedom

Grace and Volition

Epistemology

Knowledge from Senses

Correspondence Theory

Impact

Shift in Scholasticism

Catholic Doctrine

History

Early Development

Revival and Modernity

Perspectives

Key Thinkers

Diverse Interpretations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice