What was the overall timeframe covered by the timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution?

The timeline spans 5 years and 9 months, from March 25, 1785, to January 10, 1791. This period encompasses the initial discussions and conferences leading up to the Constitutional Convention, the drafting and signing of the Constitution, its ratification by the states, and the nation's transition to government under the new Constitution.

When did the drafting of the United States Constitution officially begin and end?

The drafting of the United States Constitution commenced on May 25, 1787, when the Constitutional Convention first achieved a quorum at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia. It concluded on September 17, 1787, with the adoption and signing of the Frame of Government, which was designed to replace the Articles of Confederation.

When did the ratification process for the United States Constitution begin and conclude?

The ratification process for the Constitution started on September 17, 1787, the same day it was signed. It concluded on May 29, 1790, when Rhode Island became the final state to ratify the document.

What was the purpose and location of the Maryland-Virginia conference that convened on March 25, 1785?

The Maryland-Virginia conference, later known as the Mount Vernon Conference, convened at George Washington's home, Mount Vernon, in Fairfax County, Virginia. Its primary purpose was to address navigational rights in the common waterways shared by Maryland and Virginia, such as the Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers and Chesapeake Bay.

Which delegates represented Maryland and Virginia at the Mount Vernon Conference?

Maryland was represented by Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Thomas Stone, and Samuel Chase. Virginia's delegates included George Mason and Alexander Henderson. George Washington, though the host, was not listed as a delegate.

What was the outcome of the Maryland-Virginia conference that concluded on March 28, 1785?

The delegates approved a thirteen-point agreement known as the Mount Vernon Compact. This agreement regulated commerce, fishing, and navigation in the Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers and Chesapeake Bay, and it was subsequently ratified by both the Virginia and Maryland General Assemblies, marking it as the nation's first interstate compact.

Why did the Virginia General Assembly call for an interstate convention on January 21, 1786?

The Virginia General Assembly called for an interstate convention to discuss and build a consensus on reversing the protectionist trade and commerce barriers that existed between the various states, aiming to facilitate smoother economic interactions.

What was the key recommendation made by the Annapolis Convention upon its adjournment on September 14, 1786?

Upon adjourning, the Annapolis Convention sent a report to Congress and the state legislatures. This report included a request for another convention to be held the following May in Philadelphia, specifically to discuss amending the Articles of Confederation.

Which states elected delegates for the proposed constitutional convention in late 1786, and who were some of the notable delegates?

In late 1786, New Jersey elected David Brearley, Jonathan Dayton, William Houston, William Livingston, and William Paterson. Virginia elected John Blair Jr., James Madison, George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph, George Washington, and George Wythe. Pennsylvania elected George Clymer, Thomas FitzSimons, Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll, Thomas Mifflin, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, and James Wilson.

Which states elected delegates to the proposed constitutional convention in early 1787, and who were some of the delegates?

In early 1787, North Carolina elected William Blount, William Richardson Davie, Alexander Martin, Richard Dobbs Spaight, and Hugh Williamson. New Hampshire elected Nicholas Gilman and John Langdon. Delaware elected Richard Bassett, Gunning Bedford Jr., Jacob Broom, John Dickinson, and George Read. Georgia elected Abraham Baldwin, William Few, William Houstoun, and William Pierce. Massachusetts elected Elbridge Gerry, Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King, and Caleb Strong. New York elected Alexander Hamilton, John Lansing Jr., and Robert Yates. South Carolina elected Pierce Butler, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, and John Rutledge. Maryland elected Daniel Carroll, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Luther Martin, James McHenry, and John Mercer. Connecticut elected Oliver Ellsworth, William Samuel Johnson, and Roger Sherman.

Why was the Constitutional Convention's opening meeting postponed on May 14, 1787?

The Constitutional Convention's opening meeting, scheduled for May 14, 1787, was postponed because only a small number of delegates had arrived in Philadelphia, meaning there was a lack of a quorum to officially begin the proceedings.

What was the sentiment of 'Certain Citizens of Rhode Island' regarding the Constitutional Convention, as expressed in their letter on May 17, 1787?

A letter from 'Certain Citizens of Rhode Island' was sent to the convention, conveying their support for its work and expressing regret that not every state, including their own, would be participating.

When did the Constitutional Convention officially convene, and who were elected as its key officers?

The Constitutional Convention officially convened on May 25, 1787, at the Pennsylvania State House, once enough delegates were present to form a quorum. George Washington was elected as the president of the convention, and William Jackson was chosen as its secretary. Alexander Hamilton, Charles Pinckney, and George Wythe were tasked with preparing the convention's rules.

What were the initial plans for structuring the federal government presented at the Constitutional Convention on May 29, 1787?

On May 29, 1787, two initial plans for structuring the federal government were presented: the Virginia Plan, also known as the Large State Plan or the Randolph Plan, introduced by Edmund Randolph; and the Pinckney Plan, presented by Charles Pinckney.

Who was elected to chair the Committee of the Whole during the Constitutional Convention?

Nathaniel Gorham was elected on May 30, 1787, to serve as chairman of the Committee of the Whole, a procedural device used by the convention to facilitate debate and decision-making on various proposals.

What was the Connecticut Compromise, and when was it introduced?

The Connecticut Compromise, also known as the Sherman or Great Compromise, was introduced by Roger Sherman on June 11, 1787. It proposed a bicameral legislature with proportional representation (based on population) in the House of Representatives and equal representation for each state in the Senate.

What other plans for structuring the federal government were presented in June 1787?

In June 1787, two additional plans were presented: the New Jersey Plan, also known as the Small State Plan or the Paterson Plan, introduced by William Paterson on June 15; and the Hamilton Plan, also known as the British Plan, presented by Alexander Hamilton on June 18.

What was the purpose of the Committee of Eleven selected on July 2, 1787, and who were its members?

The Committee of Eleven, comprising Abraham Baldwin, Gunning Bedford, William Davie, Oliver Ellsworth, Benjamin Franklin, Elbridge Gerry, Luther Martin, George Mason, John Rutledge, William Paterson, and Robert Yates, was chosen to find a compromise on the contentious issue of representation in the two houses of the federal legislature. Such committees, with one delegate from each state, were crucial for breaking impasses during the convention.

What was the Three-Fifths Compromise, and when was it adopted?

The Three-Fifths Compromise was adopted on July 12, 1787, by delegates from both slave states and free states. This agreement determined that enslaved individuals would be counted as three-fifths of a person for the purposes of apportioning representatives in the House of Representatives and levying direct taxes.

When was the Connecticut Compromise officially approved by the Constitutional Convention?

The Connecticut Compromise, which called for proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate, was approved by the convention on July 16, 1787, with a vote of 5–4–1. This compromise also stipulated that all money bills must originate in the House of Representatives.

What was the role of the Committee of Detail, and who were its members?

The Committee of Detail, selected on July 24, 1787, was tasked with writing the first draft of the Constitution, reflecting the resolutions that had been passed by the convention up to that point. Its members were John Rutledge, Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Gorham, Oliver Ellsworth, and James Wilson.

When was the Committee of Detail's proposed constitution presented to the convention?

The Committee of Detail presented its report, which proposed a twenty-three article constitution along with a preamble, on August 6, 1787.

What was the purpose of the Committee of Eleven selected on August 31, 1787, also known as the Committee of Leftover Business?

The Committee of Eleven (Leftover Business), composed of Abraham Baldwin, David Brearly, Pierce Butler, Daniel Carroll, John Dickinson, Nicholas Gilman, Rufus King, James Madison, Gouverneur Morris, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, was selected to resolve any postponed parts of the Constitution and unacted-upon reports, essentially tying up loose ends in the drafting process.

What was the role of the Committee of Style and Arrangement, and who were its members?

The Committee of Style and Arrangement, selected on September 8, 1787, was responsible for distilling the twenty-three approved articles into a final, cohesive draft of the Constitution. Its members were Alexander Hamilton, William Johnson, Rufus King, James Madison, and Gouverneur Morris, with Morris being the primary author of the final document.

When was the final draft of the Constitution presented to the convention, and what did it include?

The Committee of Style and Arrangement presented the completed final draft of the Constitution to the convention on September 12, 1787. The document had been reorganized into seven articles, a preamble, and a closing endorsement. The committee also provided a proposed letter to accompany the Constitution when it was delivered to Congress.

Who engrossed the official copy of the draft Constitution, and when?

The official copy of the draft Constitution was engrossed, meaning written in a large, clear hand, by Jacob Shallus between September 13 and 14, 1787.

When did the state delegations unanimously approve the draft Constitution?

The draft Constitution received the unanimous approval of the state delegations on September 15, 1787.

How many delegates signed the approved Constitution, and who declined to sign?

The approved Constitution was signed by thirty-nine delegates from twelve states, with Rhode Island being the only state not represented by a signer. John Dickinson, though ill and absent, had George Read sign by proxy. Three delegates present—Edmund Randolph, George Mason, and Elbridge Gerry—declined to sign the document.

Who signed the Constitution first, and how were the other signatures arranged?

George Washington, as president of the convention, signed the Constitution first. The other delegates then signed, grouped by state in strict congressional voting order. Due to space constraints beneath Washington's signature, a second column of signatures was started to the left. William Jackson, the convention secretary, also signed as a witness.

When and where was the proposed Constitution first publicly published?

The first public copies of the proposed Constitution were printed by The Pennsylvania Packet in Philadelphia on September 18, 1787.

When did the Congress of the Confederation receive the proposed Constitution, and what action did it take?

The proposed Constitution was received by Congress on September 20, 1787. On September 28, 1787, the Congress of the Confederation voted to transmit the proposed Constitution to the thirteen states for ratification by the people in state conventions, as outlined in its Article Seven.

When were the first Anti-Federalist letters published, and under what pseudonyms?

The first Anti-Federalist letters were published in October 1787. The first by 'Cato' was published on September 27, followed by 'Centinel' on October 5, 'Federal Farmer' on October 8, and 'Brutus' on October 18.

When did 'The Federalist Papers' begin publication, and who were the authors using the pseudonym 'Publius'?

The first of 'The Federalist Papers', Federalist No. 1 by 'Publius', was published on October 27, 1787, in The Independent Journal. The authors writing under the pseudonym 'Publius' were Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison.

Which states were the first three to ratify the Constitution, and what were their ratification dates and vote counts?

Delaware was the first state to ratify the Constitution on December 7, 1787, with a unanimous vote of 30–0. Pennsylvania followed as the second state on December 12, 1787, with a vote of 46–23. New Jersey became the third state to ratify on December 18, 1787, also unanimously with a vote of 38–0.

Which states ratified the Constitution in January 1788, and what were their vote counts?

Georgia became the fourth state to ratify the Constitution on January 2, 1788, with a unanimous vote of 26–0. Connecticut became the fifth state to ratify on January 9, 1788, with a vote of 128–40.

When did Massachusetts ratify the Constitution, and what additional request did it make?

Massachusetts ratified the Constitution on February 6, 1788, with a vote of 187–168. In addition to ratifying, Massachusetts requested that nineteen alterations be made to the Constitution.

How did Rhode Island initially respond to the proposed Constitution in March 1788, and what was the outcome?

On March 1, 1788, the Rhode Island General Assembly called for a statewide referendum on the Constitution instead of a state convention, flouting the letter and spirit of Article Seven. Voters in Rhode Island overwhelmingly rejected the Constitution on March 24, 1788, with a vote of 2,708–237.

What was the stance of the Albany Antifederal Committee in April 1788?

On April 10, 1788, the Albany Antifederal Committee published a circular strongly objecting to the proposed Constitution, asserting that the new frame of government was 'more arbitrary and despotic than that of Great Britain'.

When did Maryland and South Carolina ratify the Constitution, and what were their vote counts?

Maryland ratified the Constitution on April 28, 1788, with a vote of 63–11, becoming the seventh state. South Carolina ratified on May 23, 1788, with a vote of 149–73, becoming the eighth state. South Carolina also requested two alterations to the Constitution.

When did New Hampshire ratify the Constitution, and what was the significance of its ratification?

New Hampshire ratified the Constitution on June 21, 1788, with a vote of 57–47, becoming the ninth state to do so. This ratification was significant because, having been ratified by nine of the thirteen states, the Constitution was officially established and took effect for those nine states on this date. New Hampshire also requested twelve alterations to the Constitution.

When did Virginia ratify the Constitution, and what requests did it make?

Virginia ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788, with a vote of 89–79, becoming the tenth state. In addition to ratifying, Virginia requested that 20 alterations be made to the Constitution.

What action did Congress take on July 2, 1788, after New Hampshire's ratification?

On July 2, 1788, Congress President Cyrus Griffin informed Congress that New Hampshire had ratified the Constitution, marking the ninth ratification received. A committee was then formed to review all received ratifications and to develop a plan for implementing the new Constitution.

What was the outcome of North Carolina's first ratifying convention in Hillsborough?

North Carolina's first ratifying convention, held in Hillsborough from July 21 to August 2, 1788, resulted in delegates voting (184–84) neither to ratify nor to reject the Constitution. This decision was made with the hope of influencing the incorporation of a bill of rights into the new frame of government.

When did New York ratify the Constitution, and what additional actions did it take?

New York ratified the Constitution on July 26, 1788, with a vote of 30–27, becoming the eleventh state. In addition to ratifying, New York issued a circular letter requesting 33 alterations to the Constitution and urged the new United States Congress to take positive action on all amendments demanded by other state ratifying conventions.

What significant steps did the Congress of the Confederation take on September 13, 1788?

On September 13, 1788, the Congress of the Confederation certified that the new Constitution had been duly ratified. It also set the date for the first meeting of the new federal government and the presidential election.

When was the first presidential election under the new Constitution held, and who were the outcomes?

The first quadrennial presidential election under the new Constitution was held from December 15, 1788, to January 10, 1789. George Washington was unanimously elected as the nation's first president, and John Adams was elected its first vice president, receiving 34 of 69 votes cast.

Which states did not participate in the first presidential election, and why?

Only ten of the thirteen states cast electoral votes in the first presidential election. North Carolina and Rhode Island were ineligible because they had not yet ratified the Constitution. The New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted electors in time, resulting in no voting electors from New York.

When did the United States Congress convene under the new Constitution, and what was the initial composition of its chambers?

The federal government began operations under the new Constitution on March 4, 1789, as members of the 1st United States Congress were seated at Federal Hall in New York City. The Senate, composed of members from eleven states, included 20 Federalists and two Anti-federalists (both from Virginia). The House seated 48 Federalists and 11 Anti-federalists (from Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina, and Virginia). However, the initial meeting of each chamber had to be adjourned due to a lack of a quorum.

The Genesis of Governance

An in-depth academic timeline detailing the drafting, debates, and ratification of the United States Constitution, from its conceptual origins to its full implementation.

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Overview

A Transformative Period

The drafting of the United States Constitution commenced on May 25, 1787, with the Constitutional Convention convening at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia. This pivotal assembly aimed to revise the existing Articles of Confederation, a framework that had proven inadequate for the nascent nation's governance. The convention concluded on September 17, 1787, with the adoption and signing of the new Frame of Government.

The Ratification Journey

The ratification process, initiated immediately after the signing, was a complex and often contentious period. It required approval by state conventions, as stipulated in Article Seven of the proposed Constitution. This process spanned nearly three years, concluding on May 29, 1790, when Rhode Island became the final state among the original thirteen to ratify the document. The entire period, from the initial interstate conferences to Vermont's unique ratification, encompassed five years and nine months, from March 25, 1785, to January 10, 1791.

From Articles to Constitution

This timeline chronicles the critical events that shaped the transition from the government under the Articles of Confederation to the robust federal system established by the Constitution. It highlights the challenges of interstate commerce, the debates over representation, and the eventual compromises that forged a more perfect union, culminating in the formal establishment of the new federal government and the first presidential election.

Prelude

Mount Vernon Conference (1785)

On March 25, 1785, delegates from Maryland and Virginia convened at George Washington's Mount Vernon estate. Initially scheduled for Alexandria, Virginia, this conference addressed critical navigational rights in shared waterways, particularly the Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers and Chesapeake Bay. Key attendees included Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Thomas Stone, and Samuel Chase from Maryland, alongside George Mason and Alexander Henderson from Virginia.

The conference concluded on March 28, 1785, with the approval of a thirteen-point agreement known as the Mount Vernon Compact. This landmark accord regulated commerce, fishing, and navigation, and was subsequently ratified by both the Virginia and Maryland General Assemblies. It stands as the nation's first interstate compact, demonstrating an early attempt at resolving inter-state disputes through negotiation rather than conflict.

Annapolis Convention (1786)

Prompted by the success of the Mount Vernon Conference, the Virginia General Assembly called for a broader interstate convention to address the protectionist trade and commerce barriers hindering economic stability among the states. On September 11, 1786, delegates from Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia gathered at George Mann's Tavern in Annapolis, Maryland.

Despite the limited attendance (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island delegates arrived late or did not attend, and Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland, and South Carolina did not appoint delegates), the Annapolis Convention proved instrumental. On September 14, 1786, the delegates adjourned, sending a report to Congress and state legislatures. This report contained a crucial request: that another convention be held the following May in Philadelphia, specifically to discuss amending the Articles of Confederation, recognizing the need for more fundamental reforms.

Early Delegate Elections (1786)

Following the call from Annapolis, several states began electing delegates to the proposed constitutional convention in Philadelphia:

November 23, 1786: New Jersey elected David Brearley, Jonathan Dayton, William Houston, William Livingston, and William Paterson.
December 4, 1786: Virginia elected John Blair Jr., James Madison, George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph, George Washington, and George Wythe.
December 30, 1786: Pennsylvania elected George Clymer, Thomas FitzSimons, Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll, Thomas Mifflin, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, and James Wilson.

The Convention

Road to Philadelphia (1787)

The early months of 1787 saw more states appoint their representatives for the Philadelphia Convention:

January 6: North Carolina elected William Blount, William Richardson Davie, Alexander Martin, Richard Dobbs Spaight, and Hugh Williamson.
January 17: New Hampshire elected Nicholas Gilman and John Langdon.
February 3: Delaware elected Richard Bassett, Gunning Bedford Jr., Jacob Broom, John Dickinson, and George Read.
February 10: Georgia elected Abraham Baldwin, William Few, William Houstoun, and William Pierce.

On February 21, 1787, the Congress of the Confederation formally called for a constitutional convention, explicitly stating its purpose: "revising the Articles of Confederation and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein and when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States render the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

Initial Delays & Rhode Island's Stance

Despite the official call, the convention's scheduled opening on May 14, 1787, was postponed due to a lack of a quorum, as only a small number of delegates had arrived in Philadelphia. Connecticut elected its delegates—Oliver Ellsworth, William Samuel Johnson, and Roger Sherman—on May 14. Notably, on May 5, a motion to send delegates failed in the Rhode Island General Assembly, making it the only state not to participate. However, on May 17, a letter from "Certain Citizens of Rhode Island" was sent to the convention, expressing support for its work and regret over their state's non-participation.

Convention Convenes (May 25, 1787)

With a sufficient number of delegates finally assembled at the Pennsylvania State House, the Constitutional Convention officially convened on May 25, 1787. George Washington was unanimously elected as the president of the convention, lending immense credibility and gravitas to the proceedings. William Jackson was chosen as the secretary, and a committee comprising Alexander Hamilton, Charles Pinckney, and George Wythe was tasked with preparing the convention's rules.

Competing Visions: The Plans

Early in the convention, several foundational plans were introduced, outlining different structures for the new federal government:

May 29: Virginia Plan (also known as the Large State Plan or Randolph Plan), presented by Edmund Randolph, proposed a strong national government with proportional representation.
May 29: Pinckney Plan, presented by Charles Pinckney, also offered a framework for federal government structure.
June 15: New Jersey Plan (also known as the Small State Plan or Paterson Plan), presented by William Paterson, advocated for equal representation among states, preserving more power for smaller states.
June 18: Hamilton Plan (also known as the British Plan), presented by Alexander Hamilton, proposed a highly centralized government with a strong executive and a national legislature with broad powers.

Nathaniel Gorham was elected chairman of the Committee of the Whole on May 30, facilitating detailed discussions on these proposals.

Grand Compromises

The convention's progress hinged on resolving fundamental disagreements, leading to crucial compromises:

June 11: Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Sherman or Great Compromise), introduced by Roger Sherman, proposed proportional representation in the House of Representatives and equal representation for each state in the Senate. This plan, which also mandated that all money bills originate in the House, was referred to a committee on July 2 and approved on July 16 (5–4–1 vote).
July 12: Three-Fifths Compromise was adopted by delegates from slave and free states. This agreement determined that three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for both representation in the House of Representatives and for direct taxation purposes.

Committees at Work

Committees played a vital role in breaking impasses and refining the document:

July 2: Committee of Eleven (Abraham Baldwin, Gunning Bedford, William Davie, Oliver Ellsworth, Benjamin Franklin, Elbridge Gerry, Luther Martin, George Mason, John Rutledge, William Patterson, and Robert Yates) was formed to resolve the representation issue.
July 24: Committee of Detail (John Rutledge, Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Gorham, Oliver Ellsworth, and James Wilson) was selected to draft the first version of the Constitution based on the resolutions passed. Their report, proposing a twenty-three-article constitution, was presented on August 6.
August 18: Committee of Eleven (Abraham Baldwin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, Rufus King, John Langdon, William Livingston, George Mason, James McHenry, Charles C. Pinkney, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson) addressed federal assumption of state debts and militia issues.
August 22: Committee of Eleven (Abraham Baldwin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, William Johnson, Rufus King, John Langdon, William Livingston, Luther Martin, James Madison, Charles C. Pinkney, and Hugh Williamson) focused on federal tax and duty levying powers, and the regulation or prohibition of slave migration/importation.
August 25: Committee of Eleven (Pierce Butler, Daniel Carrol, Jonathan Dayton, William Few, Thomas FitzSimons, Nathaniel Gorham, John Langdon, George Mason, George Read, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson) considered interstate trade and navigation.
August 31: Committee of Eleven (Leftover Business) (Abraham Baldwin, David Brearly, Pierce Butler, Daniel Carrol, John Dickinson, Nicholas Gilman, Rufus King, James Madison, Gouvernour Morris, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson) settled postponed parts of the Constitution and unacted reports, including presidential election methods, term lengths, treaty powers, and impeachment.
September 8: Committee of Style and Arrangement (Alexander Hamilton, William Johnson, Rufus King, James Madison, and Gouverneur Morris) was tasked with distilling the approved articles into a final, cohesive draft. Gouverneur Morris was the primary author of this final version, which reorganized the twenty-three articles into seven, plus a preamble and closing endorsement.

Signing the Document (September 17, 1787)

After receiving unanimous approval from the state delegations on September 15, the final draft of the Constitution was engrossed by Jacob Shallus on September 13–14. On September 17, 1787, the approved Constitution was signed by thirty-nine delegates from twelve states (all except Rhode Island). John Dickinson, though ill and absent, had George Read sign by proxy. Three delegates present—Edmund Randolph, George Mason, and Elbridge Gerry—declined to sign. George Washington, as president of the convention, signed first, followed by other delegates grouped by state in congressional voting order. William Jackson, the convention secretary, also signed as a witness. The convention then adjourned sine die.

The Ratification

Public Debut & Early Opposition (1787)

The proposed Constitution was first publicly printed by The Pennsylvania Packet in Philadelphia on September 18, 1787. This marked the beginning of a nationwide debate. Soon after, the first Anti-Federalist letters, arguing against the Constitution's adoption, began to appear. "Cato" published his first letter on September 27, followed by "Centinel" on October 5, "Federal Farmer" on October 8, and "Brutus" on October 18. These essays raised concerns about the new government's potential for centralized power and lack of a bill of rights.

The Federalist Papers (1787)

In response to the Anti-Federalist critiques, the first of The Federalist Papers, "Federalist No. 1" by "Publius" (a pseudonym used by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison), was published in The Independent Journal on October 27, 1787. This series of essays aimed to explain and defend the proposed Constitution, addressing objections and advocating for its ratification. The authors hoped to "give a satisfactory answer to all the [Anti-Federalist] objections which shall have made their appearance, that may seem to have any claim to your attention."

First States to Ratify (1787)

The ratification process began swiftly in some states:

November 20: The ratifying convention began in Pennsylvania.
December 3: The ratifying convention began in Delaware.
December 7: Delaware became the first state to ratify the Constitution (30–0 vote).
December 11: The ratifying convention began in New Jersey.
December 12: Pennsylvania became the second state to ratify (46–23 vote).
December 18: New Jersey became the third state to ratify (38–0 vote).

On December 18, the Anti-Federalist minority of the Pennsylvania convention published their "Dissent," articulating their opposition to the newly ratified document. On December 25, the ratifying convention began in Georgia.

A New Government

Ratification Momentum (1788)

The momentum for ratification continued into 1788:

January 2: Georgia became the fourth state to ratify (26–0 vote).
January 3: The ratifying convention began in Connecticut.
January 9: Connecticut became the fifth state to ratify (128–40 vote).
January 9: The ratifying convention began in Massachusetts.
February 6: Massachusetts became the sixth state to ratify (187–168 vote), notably requesting nineteen alterations to the Constitution.
February 13–22: The first session of the ratifying convention was held in New Hampshire.

Rhode Island, however, continued its unique path. On March 1, the Rhode Island General Assembly called for a statewide referendum on the Constitution, rather than a state convention as prescribed by Article Seven. On March 24, Rhode Island voters overwhelmingly rejected the Constitution (2,708–237 vote). On April 10, the Albany Antifederal Committee published a circular strongly objecting to the proposed constitution, deeming it "more arbitrary and despotic than that of Great Britain."

The Constitution Takes Effect

The critical threshold of nine states was reached in mid-1788:

April 21: The ratifying convention began in Maryland.
April 28: Maryland became the seventh state to ratify (63–11 vote).
May 12: The ratifying convention began in South Carolina.
May 23: South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify (149–73 vote), requesting two alterations.
June 2: The ratifying convention began in Virginia.
June 17: The ratifying convention began in New York.
June 18: The second session of the ratifying convention began in New Hampshire.
June 21: New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution (57–47 vote), requesting twelve alterations. This ratification officially established the Constitution, bringing it into effect for the nine ratifying states.
June 25: Virginia became the tenth state to ratify (89–79 vote), requesting twenty alterations.

On July 2, Congress President Cyrus Griffin informed Congress of New Hampshire's ratification, confirming the nine-state threshold. A committee was formed to plan the implementation of the new Constitution.

New York & North Carolina

The debates continued in key states:

July 21 – August 2: The first ratifying convention was held in Hillsborough, North Carolina. Delegates voted (184–84) neither to ratify nor reject, hoping to effect the incorporation of a bill of rights.
July 26: New York became the eleventh state to ratify the Constitution (30–27 vote). New York also issued a circular letter requesting thirty-three alterations and urging the new U.S. Congress to act on all amendments demanded by other state ratifying conventions.

On September 13, the Congress of the Confederation certified that the new Constitution had been duly ratified and set the date for the first meeting of the new federal government and the presidential election. The first quadrennial presidential election under the new Constitution was held from December 15, 1788, to January 10, 1789.

Final Steps

Inauguration of the New Government (1789)

The new federal government began its operations in 1789:

February 4: The Electoral College convened, with George Washington unanimously elected as the nation's first President and John Adams as its first Vice President (receiving 34 of 69 votes). Only ten of the thirteen states cast electoral votes, as North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet ratified, and New York's legislature failed to appoint electors in time.
March 4: The 1st United States Congress convened at Federal Hall in New York City. The Senate included 20 Federalists and two Anti-Federalists, while the House seated 48 Federalists and 11 Anti-Federalists. However, initial meetings of both chambers were adjourned due to a lack of a quorum.
April 1: The House of Representatives achieved its first quorum, electing Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania as Speaker.
April 6: The Senate achieved its first quorum, electing John Langdon of New Hampshire as President pro tempore. On the same day, the House and Senate, in joint session, certified the election of Washington and Adams.
April 21: John Adams was sworn in as Vice President in the Senate chamber.
April 30: George Washington was inaugurated as President at Federal Hall, taking the oath of office with his hand on a Bible belonging to St. John's Lodge No. 1, A.Y.M., administered by Chancellor Robert Livingston of New York.

Proposed Amendments: The Bill of Rights

A significant outcome of the ratification debates was the commitment to add a Bill of Rights. On September 25, 1789, twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution were approved by the Senate (having passed the House the preceding day, both without recorded vote) and sent to the states for ratification. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified on December 15, 1791, becoming the Bill of Rights. Article Two was later ratified on May 7, 1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment, while Article One technically remains pending before the states.

North Carolina & Rhode Island Join

The remaining states eventually joined the Union under the new Constitution:

November 16, 1789: The second ratifying convention began in Fayetteville, North Carolina.
November 21, 1789: North Carolina became the twelfth state to ratify the Constitution (194–77 vote), requesting twenty-six alterations.
February 2, 1790: The Supreme Court of the United States held its inaugural session at the Royal Exchange Building in New York City, with Chief Justice John Jay presiding. The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the Court with a chief justice and five associate justices.
March 1–6, 1790: The first session of the ratifying convention was held in Rhode Island.
May 24, 1790: The second session of the ratifying convention began in Rhode Island.
May 29, 1790: Rhode Island became the last of the original thirteen states to ratify the Constitution (34–32 vote), requesting twenty-one alterations.

Vermont's Unique Entry (1791)

The timeline concludes with Vermont's entry into the Union:

January 6, 1791: A convention to consider joining the United States began in Vermont.
January 10, 1791: Vermont voted to ratify the Constitution and apply for admission to the Union (105–2 vote), marking a unique conclusion to the initial period of constitutional formation and expansion.

Ratification Data

State-by-State Ratification Summary

The following table provides a concise overview of each state's ratification date and the corresponding vote count, illustrating the varied levels of consensus across the nascent United States.

State	Date of Ratification	Vote (Yeas–Nays)
Delaware	December 7, 1787	30–0
Pennsylvania	December 12, 1787	46–23
New Jersey	December 18, 1787	38–0
Georgia	January 2, 1788	26–0
Connecticut	January 9, 1788	128–40
Massachusetts	February 6, 1788	187–168
Maryland	April 28, 1788	63–11
South Carolina	May 23, 1788	149–73
New Hampshire	June 21, 1788	57–47
Virginia	June 25, 1788	89–79
New York	July 26, 1788	30–27
North Carolina	November 21, 1789	194–77
Rhode Island	May 29, 1790	34–32
Vermont	January 10, 1791	105–2

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References

Warren 1928, June 11

Madison 1787, June 15

Madison 1787, July 16

Madison 1787, August 6

Madison 1787, September 12

Madison 1787, September 15

A full list of references for this article are available at the Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution Wikipedia page

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The Genesis of Governance

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview 📜

📅 A Transformative Period

🤝 The Ratification Journey

🔗 From Articles to Constitution

Prelude ⏳

🏞️ Mount Vernon Conference (1785)

🏛️ Annapolis Convention (1786)

🗳️ Early Delegate Elections (1786)

The Convention ✍️

🗓️ Road to Philadelphia (1787)

🚧 Initial Delays & Rhode Island's Stance

gavel Convention Convenes (May 25, 1787)

💡 Competing Visions: The Plans

⚖️ Grand Compromises

🛠️ Committees at Work

🖋️ Signing the Document (September 17, 1787)

The Ratification 🗳️

📰 Public Debut & Early Opposition (1787)

🗣️ The Federalist Papers (1787)

📜 First States to Ratify (1787)

A New Government 🇺🇸

📈 Ratification Momentum (1788)

🎉 The Constitution Takes Effect

✉️ New York & North Carolina

Final Steps 🏁

🏛️ Inauguration of the New Government (1789)

📝 Proposed Amendments: The Bill of Rights

✅ North Carolina & Rhode Island Join

⛰️ Vermont's Unique Entry (1791)

Ratification Data 📊

📋 State-by-State Ratification Summary

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

A Transformative Period

The Ratification Journey

From Articles to Constitution

Prelude

Mount Vernon Conference (1785)

Annapolis Convention (1786)

Early Delegate Elections (1786)

The Convention

Road to Philadelphia (1787)

Initial Delays & Rhode Island's Stance

Convention Convenes (May 25, 1787)

Competing Visions: The Plans

Grand Compromises

Committees at Work

Signing the Document (September 17, 1787)

The Ratification

Public Debut & Early Opposition (1787)

The Federalist Papers (1787)

First States to Ratify (1787)

A New Government

Ratification Momentum (1788)

The Constitution Takes Effect

New York & North Carolina

Final Steps

Inauguration of the New Government (1789)

Proposed Amendments: The Bill of Rights

North Carolina & Rhode Island Join

Vermont's Unique Entry (1791)

Ratification Data

State-by-State Ratification Summary

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice