What is the troposphere and where is it located within Earth's atmosphere?

The troposphere is defined as the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It is the layer closest to the planet's surface.

What is the origin of the term troposphere?

The word troposphere originates from Ancient Greek words: tropos, meaning turning or change, and sphaira, meaning sphere. This etymology reflects the turbulent mixing of air layers characteristic of this atmospheric region.

What proportion of the Earth's atmosphere's mass and water vapor is contained within the troposphere?

The troposphere holds a significant majority of the atmosphere's mass, containing approximately 80% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere. It also contains virtually all of the atmospheric water vapor, accounting for 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols.

Where do most weather phenomena occur?

The vast majority of weather phenomena, such as clouds, rain, and storms, occur within the troposphere. This is due to its high concentration of water vapor and its dynamic nature.

How does the average height of the troposphere vary across different latitudes on Earth?

The average height of the troposphere is not uniform across the globe. It is highest in the tropics, averaging about 18 km (11 miles), is somewhat lower in the middle latitudes at approximately 17 km (11 miles), and is significantly lower in the high latitudes of the polar regions, especially during winter, where it averages around 6 km (3.7 miles).

What is the planetary boundary layer (PBL) and how does the troposphere influence its formation?

The planetary boundary layer is the lowest part of the troposphere, directly influenced by the Earth's surface. Its formation is affected by the frictional drag of the troposphere's air flow against the planetary surface, and its height can range from hundreds of meters up to 2 km (1.2 miles).

What marks the upper boundary of the troposphere, and what is its characteristic temperature profile?

The tropopause serves as the functional atmospheric border separating the troposphere from the stratosphere above it. This boundary is characterized as an inversion layer, meaning that air temperature begins to increase with altitude within the stratosphere, contrasting with the decrease in temperature typically observed within the troposphere.

What is the approximate natural pH of Earth's atmospheric water vapor?

The atmospheric water vapor, which forms carbonic acid rain water, has an approximate natural pH ranging from 5.0 to 5.5, indicating it is slightly acidic. This pH can be affected by various atmospheric components and processes.

What are the primary gases that constitute the Earth's atmosphere, and what are their approximate percentages?

The Earth's atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (N2) at about 78.08%, oxygen (O2) at about 20.95%, and argon (Ar) at about 0.93%. It also contains trace amounts of other gases and variable amounts of water vapor.

What are the main sources of atmospheric water vapor found in the troposphere?

Atmospheric water vapor originates from large bodies of water such as oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers, through the process of evaporation. Vegetation on the planetary surface also contributes water vapor through transpiration.

How can combustion processes impact the atmosphere, particularly concerning water vapor and air quality?

The combustion of hydrocarbons releases water vapor, sometimes as invisible steam, into the atmosphere. It can also release particulates like carbon and ash, and form molecules such as nitrites and sulphites. In highly industrialized areas, these by-products can contribute to air pollution and acid rain, potentially lowering the atmospheric water's pH below its natural level.

What methods can be employed to mitigate the negative effects of combustion by-products in the atmosphere?

The harmful effects of pollutants released by combustion can be addressed using technologies like scrubber towers and other physical means. These methods capture the pollutants, which can then be processed into valuable by-products.

How does air pressure change as one moves to higher altitudes within the atmosphere?

Air pressure, which is essentially the weight of the atmosphere above a given point, is greatest at sea level and decreases as altitude increases. This relationship is governed by the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium.

What is hydrostatic equilibrium in the context of the atmosphere?

Hydrostatic equilibrium describes a state where the air pressure at any given point in the atmosphere is balanced by the weight of the air column directly above it. This balance explains why pressure decreases with increasing altitude.

How does the Earth's surface contribute to heating the troposphere?

The planetary surface heats the troposphere through three primary mechanisms: latent heat transfer, thermal radiation emitted by the surface, and sensible heat transfer. These processes transfer energy from the surface into the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

Why is the troposphere generally denser at the equator compared to the poles?

The gas layers of the troposphere are less dense at the geographic poles and denser at the equator. This difference in density is related to temperature variations and contributes to the greater average height of the troposphere in tropical latitudes.

What are the average temperatures at the tropopause in different latitudinal regions?

At the geographical poles (Arctic and Antarctic), the average temperature at the tropopause is approximately -45 °C (-49 °F). In the middle latitudes, the tropopause temperature averages around -55 °C (-67 °F). At the equator, the tropopause is significantly colder, with temperatures ranging from -70 to -75 °C (-94 to -103 °F).

How is the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) determined?

The Environmental Lapse Rate is calculated by finding the difference between the temperature of the planetary surface and the temperature at the tropopause, and then dividing this difference by the altitude between them. It quantimeters the rate at which air temperature decreases with increasing altitude.

What fundamental assumptions are made when calculating the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)?

The basic ELR calculation assumes that the planetary atmosphere is static, meaning there is no mixing of air layers due to vertical convection or winds that could create turbulence. It simplifies the complex dynamics of the atmosphere for calculation purposes.

What causes the temperature of an air parcel to decrease as it rises to higher altitudes in the troposphere?

As a parcel of air rises, it encounters lower atmospheric pressure, causing it to expand. This expansion requires the air parcel to do work on the surrounding atmosphere, expending its internal energy. Since heat transfer is slow and inefficient in this process (an adiabatic process), the loss of energy manifests as a decrease in the air parcel's temperature.

What is an adiabatic process in meteorology?

An adiabatic process refers to a thermodynamic process where energy is not transferred into or out of a system (in this case, an air parcel) by heat. Changes in temperature occur solely due to expansion or compression of the air.

How does the concept of isentropic process relate to atmospheric compression and expansion?

An isentropic process describes the reversible compression and expansion of an air parcel where there is no change in entropy (dS = 0). This means that as the air parcel moves up or down, its internal state changes without gaining or losing heat energy from the surroundings, maintaining a constant entropy.

What does the equation dS = 0 signify in the context of atmospheric processes?

The equation dS = 0 signifies an isentropic process, indicating that the entropy of the air parcel remains constant as it changes altitude. This is a key concept in understanding adiabatic processes in the atmosphere.

What is the saturated adiabatic lapse rate?

The saturated adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature decreases with altitude when the air is saturated with water vapor and cooling causes condensation. This process releases latent heat, affecting the lapse rate compared to dry air.

What is the average environmental lapse rate in the troposphere?

In the troposphere, the average environmental lapse rate is a decrease of approximately 6.5 degrees Celsius for every 1.0 kilometer (1,000 meters) of increased altitude. This rate describes how temperature typically changes with height in the lower atmosphere.

What is the heat capacity ratio for air, and what is its approximate value?

The heat capacity ratio for air, denoted by gamma (γ), is approximately 7/5 or 1.4. This value is used in thermodynamic calculations related to the behavior of gases like air.

What is the calculated dry adiabatic lapse rate for air?

The dry adiabatic lapse rate for air is calculated to be approximately -9.8 degrees Celsius per kilometer (-5.4 degrees Fahrenheit per 1000 feet). This rate represents how quickly a dry air parcel cools as it ascends due to expansion.

How does the environmental lapse rate (ELR) typically compare to the adiabatic lapse rate?

Generally, the environmental lapse rate (dT/dz) is unequal to the adiabatic lapse rate (dS/dz ≠ 0). This difference is significant because it determines the stability of the atmosphere.

Under what atmospheric conditions will a rising air parcel continue to accelerate upwards?

A rising air parcel will continue to accelerate upwards if the upper air is cooler than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate. In this scenario, the rising air parcel will be warmer, less dense, and more buoyant than the surrounding air, causing it to ascend further.

What is the tropopause, and how is it identified?

The tropopause is the atmospheric boundary layer situated between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It is identified by observing the changes in temperature relative to altitude in both the troposphere, where temperature decreases with height, and the stratosphere, where temperature initially remains constant and then increases with height.

Why does air temperature increase with altitude in the stratosphere?

The increase in air temperature with altitude in the stratosphere is primarily due to the ozone layer's presence. This layer absorbs and retains a significant portion of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by the Sun, leading to warming at higher stratospheric levels.

How does the tropopause function as an inversion layer?

The tropopause acts as an inversion layer because the temperature profile changes dramatically at this boundary. While temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere below it, the temperature begins to stabilize and then increase with altitude in the stratosphere above it, limiting the mixing of air between the two layers.

What is the general direction of atmospheric flow on Earth?

The general flow of the atmosphere is predominantly from west to east. However, this pattern can be influenced and interrupted by polar flows moving either north-to-south or south-to-north.

What are zonal and meridional flows in meteorology?

Zonal flow refers to the west-to-east movement of the atmosphere along the Earth's latitude lines. Meridional flow describes atmospheric movement that has a more significant north-south component, often occurring when the zonal flow buckles or becomes interrupted.

What does the three-cell model of atmospheric circulation describe?

The three-cell model describes the circulation of the Earth's planetary atmosphere by outlining the Hadley cell (tropical), Ferrel cell (mid-latitude), and polar cell. It explains the flow of energy and the movement of air masses across different latitudes.

What is the fundamental principle underlying the three-cell model of atmospheric circulation?

The fundamental principle of the three-cell model is the Earth's energy balance: the total solar energy absorbed by the Earth annually is equal to the energy radiated back into space. The model illustrates how atmospheric circulation helps distribute this energy.

Why does the Earth's energy balance not apply equally to each latitude according to the three-cell model?

The energy balance is not uniform across all latitudes because the intensity of sunlight striking each latitude varies. This variation is due to the inclination of the Earth's axis as it orbits the Sun, resulting in different amounts of solar energy being received at different latitudes.

What is the role of atmospheric circulation in balancing heat across the planet?

Atmospheric circulation, as described by the three-cell model, plays a crucial role in transporting warm air from the tropics towards the poles and cold air from the poles towards the tropics. This process helps to equalize temperatures and moisture levels across the Earth's atmosphere, tending towards an overall equilibrium.

What characterizes a zonal flow regime in meteorology?

A zonal flow regime is characterized by a dominant west-to-east pattern of atmospheric movement along the Earth's lines of latitude. This flow may contain weaker, short-wave disturbances but is primarily oriented eastwards.

How can a zonal flow pattern transform into a meridional flow?

A zonal flow pattern can transform into a meridional flow when the west-to-east flow buckles or becomes distorted. This distortion allows for more significant north-south movement of air masses.

What are the defining features of a meridional flow pattern?

Meridional flow patterns are distinguished by strong, amplified troughs (areas of low pressure) and ridges (areas of high pressure). These patterns involve a greater degree of north-south air movement compared to the west-to-east movement seen in zonal flow.

What does the image depicting Earth's troposphere with cloud types illustrate?

The image shows Earth's troposphere, highlighting various cloud types ranging from low to high altitudes. It also depicts how sunlight filtering through the troposphere at sunset can create reddish light, and the blue glow of scattered sunlight from the stratosphere visible at the horizon.

What does the diagram illustrating atmospheric circulation represent?

The diagram illustrates the three-cell model of the planetary atmosphere's circulation. This model helps to explain the general movement of air across the Earth's surface and through its atmospheric layers.

What information is presented in the table regarding the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)?

The table details the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) across different altitude regions of the atmosphere. It provides the lapse rate in both degrees Celsius per kilometer and degrees Fahrenheit per 1000 feet for various altitude ranges, showing how temperature changes with height in different atmospheric layers.

What is the significance of the image showing the atmosphere layers?

The image displays the five main layers of Earth's atmosphere: the exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. It also provides approximate altitude ranges for these layers and notes that the distance from the surface to the edge of the stratosphere is less than 1.0% of Earth's radius.

What does the image of the sky viewed from an airplane over the Arctic represent?

The image captures the appearance of Earth's atmosphere as seen from an airplane traveling over the Arctic region. It provides a visual perspective of the atmospheric layers from within.

What does the image labeled Zonal Flow depict?

The image labeled Zonal Flow illustrates a dominant west-to-east atmospheric movement pattern, specifically showing the 500 hPa height pattern. This visual representation helps to understand the prevailing direction of air currents along latitudinal lines.

What does the image labeled Meridional Flow illustrate?

The image labeled Meridional Flow displays a pattern of atmospheric movement with significant north-south components. It shows amplified troughs and ridges in the 500 hPa height pattern, indicating a deviation from the purely west-to-east zonal flow.

What is the relationship between the altitude of the troposphere and the density of gas layers at the poles versus the equator?

The gas layers of the troposphere are less dense at the geographic poles and denser at the equator. This difference in density contributes to the troposphere being significantly higher in the tropics (around 13 km average) compared to the polar regions (around 6 km average).

How does the temperature change from sea level to the tropopause at the equator?

At the equator, the temperature decreases from an average of 20 °C (68 °F) at sea level to approximately -70 to -75 °C (-94 to -103 °F) at the tropopause. This represents a substantial temperature drop over the altitude range of the troposphere in tropical regions.

Troposphere Wiki: The Troposphere: Earth's Dynamic Atmospheric Layer

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Overview

The Lowest Layer

The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 80% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols. This is the region where most weather phenomena occur.

Varying Heights

The average height of the troposphere varies significantly with latitude. It extends approximately 18 km (11 mi) in the tropics, 17 km (11 mi) in the middle latitudes, and only about 6 km (3.7 mi) in the polar regions during winter. This results in an overall average height of about 13 km (8.1 mi).

Origin of the Name

The term "troposphere" originates from the Ancient Greek word trópos (meaning 'turning' or 'change') and sphaira (meaning 'sphere'). This name reflects the constant mixing and turbulence within this atmospheric layer, driven by rotational forces and thermal convection.

Structure

Atmospheric Layers

The Earth's atmosphere is broadly divided into five main layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The troposphere is the foundational layer, closest to the planet's surface.

The Tropopause Boundary

The upper boundary of the troposphere is known as the tropopause. This is a critical transition zone where the temperature, which decreases with altitude in the troposphere, begins to stabilize and eventually increase in the stratosphere. This temperature inversion marks a significant change in atmospheric dynamics.

Planetary Boundary Layer

The interaction of the troposphere with the Earth's surface creates the planetary boundary layer (PBL). This layer, varying in height from hundreds of meters to about 2 km (1.2 mi), is influenced by surface friction, landforms, and diurnal cycles, significantly impacting local weather and air quality.

Composition

Primary Gases

The troposphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (N₂) at about 78.08%, oxygen (O₂) at 20.95%, and argon (Ar) at 0.93%. Trace amounts of other gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone, are also present.

Water Vapor and Aerosols

This layer holds nearly all of the atmosphere's water vapor and aerosols. Water vapor is crucial for weather phenomena like clouds and precipitation. Aerosols, tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, play significant roles in cloud formation and radiative processes.

Atmospheric Acidity

Atmospheric water vapor, in equilibrium with carbon dioxide, forms a slightly acidic carbonic acid solution, typically with a pH around 5.0 to 5.5. While combustion can release pollutants that lower this pH (acid rain), natural processes maintain a generally mild acidity.

Pressure

Decreasing with Altitude

Atmospheric pressure is greatest at sea level and decreases exponentially with increasing altitude. This relationship is governed by the principles of hydrostatic equilibrium, where the pressure at any given point is equivalent to the weight of the atmospheric column above it.

Hydrostatic Equation

The relationship between pressure and altitude can be described by the hydrostatic equation:

${\frac {dP}{dz}}=-\rho g_{n}=-{\frac {mPg_{n}}{RT}}$

This equation relates the change in pressure (dP) with altitude (dz) to density (ρ), standard gravity (g_n), molar mass (m), pressure (P), the universal gas constant (R), and thermodynamic temperature (T).

Temperature

Decreasing with Altitude

The troposphere is heated primarily by the Earth's surface through latent heat, thermal radiation, and sensible heat. As a result, air temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude. This rate of decrease is known as the environmental lapse rate (ELR).

Lapse Rates

The temperature profile varies by latitude. At middle latitudes, temperatures decrease from an average of 15°C (59°F) at sea level to approximately -55°C (-67°F) at the tropopause. At the equator, temperatures decrease from 20°C (68°F) to -70°C to -75°C (-94°F to -103°F).

Environmental Lapse Rate Table

The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) quantifies the average decrease in temperature with altitude. Note the variations in lapse rate across different altitude regions:

**Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)**
Altitude Region (m)	Lapse rate (°C / km)	Lapse Rate (°F / 1000 ft)
0 – 11,000	6.50	3.57
11,000 – 20,000	0.0	0.0
20,000 – 32,000	−1.0	−0.55
32,000 – 47,000	−2.8	−1.54
47,000 – 51,000	0.0	0.0
51,000 – 71,000	2.80	1.54
71,000 – 85,000	2.00	1.09

Altitude

Latitudinal Variation

The altitude of the tropopause, and thus the thickness of the troposphere, is not uniform across the globe. It is significantly higher in the tropics (around 18 km) due to greater surface heating and stronger convection, compared to the polar regions where it is much lower (around 6 km).

View from Above

As depicted from an airplane window, especially over regions like the Arctic, the visual appearance of the atmosphere changes with altitude. While the troposphere is where most weather occurs, higher atmospheric layers possess distinct characteristics.

Dynamics

Expansion and Cooling

As an air parcel rises into regions of lower atmospheric pressure, it expands. This expansion requires work to be done on the surrounding atmosphere, causing the air parcel to lose internal energy and cool. This process, occurring without significant heat exchange with the environment, is known as an adiabatic process.

Compression and Warming

Conversely, when an air parcel sinks, it encounters higher atmospheric pressure, leading to compression. This compression does work on the air parcel, increasing its internal energy and causing it to warm. This is the reverse of the adiabatic cooling process.

Isentropic Processes

These processes of compression and expansion, where entropy remains constant (dS = 0), are termed isentropic. The rate at which temperature changes with altitude under these conditions is the adiabatic lapse rate. For dry air, the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is approximately 9.8°C per kilometer.

Humidity

Condensation and Clouds

When air containing water vapor cools to its saturation point, condensation occurs, forming clouds. This process releases latent heat, which affects the rate at which temperature decreases with altitude. This is described by the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (WALR), which is generally less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate.

Impact on Lapse Rate

The presence of water vapor and the potential for condensation significantly influence atmospheric stability. If the environmental lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse rate (dry or saturated), the atmosphere is unstable, promoting vertical motion and convection.

Tropopause

The Boundary Layer

The tropopause serves as the critical boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It is identified by the point where the temperature lapse rate transitions from decreasing with altitude (troposphere) to remaining constant or increasing with altitude (stratosphere).

Stratospheric Influence

The temperature inversion in the lower stratosphere, caused by the ozone layer's absorption of ultraviolet radiation, plays a key role in defining the tropopause. This inversion limits vertical mixing between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Flow

Global Circulation

The general atmospheric flow is predominantly from west to east (zonal flow). However, this pattern is frequently interrupted by north-south movements (meridional flow), driven by the planet's energy balance and the differential heating between the tropics and the poles.

The Three-Cell Model

Meteorology describes atmospheric circulation using the three-cell model. This model explains the transport of energy and moisture across latitudes, aiming to achieve a global thermal equilibrium. It comprises the Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells.

Cells

Hadley Cell

Located in the tropical regions, the Hadley cell involves air rising near the equator, flowing poleward at high altitudes, sinking in the subtropics, and returning towards the equator near the surface. This cell is a primary driver of tropical weather patterns.

Ferrel Cell

The Ferrel cell is characteristic of the mid-latitudes. It is driven indirectly by the Hadley and Polar cells, involving sinking air in the subtropics and rising air at higher latitudes. This cell is associated with the prevailing westerly winds.

Polar Cell

At the poles, the Polar cell involves cold air sinking at the poles, flowing equatorward near the surface, and rising at higher latitudes. This cell contributes to the cold, dry conditions found in polar regions.

Zonal

West-to-East Flow

Zonal flow refers to the predominant west-to-east movement of air currents along the Earth's lines of latitude. This pattern is characterized by relatively stable, elongated weather systems.

Embedded Waves

While primarily west-to-east, zonal flow patterns often contain embedded shortwaves. These waves can influence regional weather by steering weather systems and contributing to variations in temperature and precipitation.

Meridional

North-South Movement

Meridional flow describes atmospheric movement with a significant north-south component, deviating from the typical west-to-east zonal flow. This pattern is characterized by amplified troughs (low pressure) and ridges (high pressure).

Weather System Influence

Strong meridional flow patterns can lead to more extreme weather events, such as intense cold air outbreaks from the poles or warm air intrusions from the tropics, as they facilitate greater exchange of air masses between different latitudes.

Further Information

External Resources

Explore additional resources for a deeper understanding of atmospheric science and related fields.

Wiktionary: Troposphere (opens in new tab)
NOAA: Layers of the Atmosphere (opens in new tab)
Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere (opens in new tab)

Authority Control

Metadata and identifiers for the concept of the Troposphere across various databases.

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The Troposphere: Earth's Dynamic Atmospheric Layer

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview 🌍

⬇️ The Lowest Layer

📏 Varying Heights

🔄 Origin of the Name

Structure 🏗️

🧱 Atmospheric Layers

➖ The Tropopause Boundary

🌐 Planetary Boundary Layer

Composition 🧪

💨 Primary Gases

💧 Water Vapor and Aerosols

pH Atmospheric Acidity

Pressure ⚖️

⬇️ Decreasing with Altitude

📈 Hydrostatic Equation

Temperature 🌡️

🌡️ Decreasing with Altitude

📉 Lapse Rates

📊 Environmental Lapse Rate Table

Altitude ⬆️

🌍 Latitudinal Variation

✈️ View from Above

Dynamics ⚙️

⬆️ Expansion and Cooling

🔄 Compression and Warming

⚖️ Isentropic Processes

Humidity 💧

☁️ Condensation and Clouds

🌡️ Impact on Lapse Rate

Tropopause ➖

📍 The Boundary Layer

☀️ Stratospheric Influence

Flow 🌬️

🌍 Global Circulation

🔄 The Three-Cell Model

Cells 🌐

🌴 Hadley Cell

temperate Ferrel Cell

❄️ Polar Cell

Zonal ↔️

➡️ West-to-East Flow

〰️ Embedded Waves

Meridional ↕️

⬆️⬇️ North-South Movement

🌪️ Weather System Influence

Further Information ℹ️

🔗 External Resources

🗂️ Authority Control

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

The Lowest Layer

Varying Heights

Origin of the Name

Structure

Atmospheric Layers

The Tropopause Boundary

Planetary Boundary Layer

Composition

Primary Gases

Water Vapor and Aerosols

Atmospheric Acidity

Pressure

Decreasing with Altitude

Hydrostatic Equation

Temperature

Decreasing with Altitude

Lapse Rates

Environmental Lapse Rate Table

Altitude

Latitudinal Variation

View from Above

Dynamics

Expansion and Cooling

Compression and Warming

Isentropic Processes

Humidity

Condensation and Clouds

Impact on Lapse Rate

Tropopause

The Boundary Layer

Stratospheric Influence

Flow

Global Circulation

The Three-Cell Model

Cells

Hadley Cell

Ferrel Cell

Polar Cell

Zonal

West-to-East Flow

Embedded Waves

Meridional

North-South Movement

Weather System Influence

Further Information

External Resources

Authority Control

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice