How is 'underdevelopment' broadly defined within the context of international development?

In international development, 'underdevelopment' refers to a comprehensive condition or phenomenon that is defined and critically analyzed by scholars in fields such as economics, development studies, and postcolonial studies. It is primarily used to differentiate states based on benchmarks of human development, including macro-economic growth, health, education, and overall standards of living, positioning an 'underdeveloped' state as the opposite of a 'developed,' modern, or industrialized one.

What are the common characteristics associated with 'underdeveloped' states?

Popular and dominant perceptions of 'underdeveloped' states include those characterized by less stable economies, less democratic political systems, higher levels of poverty, widespread malnutrition, and inadequate public health and education systems. These conditions collectively contribute to a lower overall well-being for their populations.

According to Walter Rodney, what are the two primary components that constitute underdevelopment?

Walter Rodney posits that underdevelopment fundamentally comprises two elements: a comparative aspect, which involves assessing one country against another, and a relationship of exploitation, specifically the exploitation of one country by another. This highlights the power dynamics inherent in the concept.

When did Mexican activist Gustavo Esteva assert that 'underdevelopment' truly began?

Mexican activist Gustavo Esteva contended that underdevelopment commenced in 1949, specifically when American President Harry Truman delivered his inaugural address. Esteva argued that after World War II, mass poverty was 'discovered' in these regions, leading to the categorization of two billion people as 'underdeveloped' on that day.

How did the Euro-centric development discourse influence the understanding and proposed solutions for underdevelopment?

The Euro-centric development discourse, often imbued with an aura of expertise, tended to equate development primarily with economic growth, thereby narrowing the issue of underdevelopment to an economic problem. Consequently, the solutions proposed by development experts and practitioners were predominantly economic, often failing to address deeper political and social contexts like colonial legacies and Cold War geopolitics.

What was the Green Revolution, and what was its initial aim regarding global agriculture?

The Green Revolution was a significant global development initiative aimed at modernizing the agricultural sector by exporting the industrial agricultural model of production from developed countries. Initially, countries like the U.S. and Canada provided surplus crops as food aid to poorer nations to alleviate widespread hunger in the postcolonial world.

How did food aid during the Green Revolution lead to dependency in recipient countries?

During the Green Revolution, developing countries, such as India, became heavily reliant on food aid, much of which consisted of crops that could not be grown locally. To continue receiving this foreign assistance, the U.S. imposed conditions requiring recipients to adopt the entire industrial model of agriculture, thus fostering a new form of dependency.

Beyond agriculture, what political motivation was associated with the 'Green Revolution'?

The Green Revolution was not only named for its agricultural focus but also served as a strategic tool to combat the 'Red,' or communist, revolution. Western powers believed that hunger could incite peasant revolutions, and therefore, food aid was explicitly utilized as a means to prevent the spread of communism.

What were the necessary inputs for the industrial agricultural model promoted by the Green Revolution, and what were their consequences for farmers?

The industrial agricultural model exported during the Green Revolution required a complex system of inputs, including fertilizers, pesticides, and new irrigation systems. These requirements were costly for farmers, cutting into their profits even when crop yields increased, and ultimately made dependent countries reliant on transnational corporations supplying these agricultural necessities.

What was the long-term impact of the Green Revolution on vulnerable populations in underdeveloped countries?

While the Green Revolution successfully increased crop yields, at least in the short term, it also led to land degradation due to the increased need for fertilizers and pesticides. In the process, it exacerbated the poverty of vulnerable populations in countries that are now considered underdeveloped, despite its initial aim to improve food security.

What role did coastal geography play in a nation's prosperity, according to Adam Smith?

Seminal economist Adam Smith theorized that a nation's prosperity was not only dependent on free markets but also significantly influenced by coastal geography, specifically easy access to sea trade. He noted that large parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are geographically distant from the ocean compared to Europe.

How did Jeffrey Sachs and his collaborators expand on the geographical explanation of underdevelopment?

Jeffrey Sachs and his team systematically demonstrated the link between geography and underdevelopment, further explaining that this relationship is also influenced by factors such as agricultural productivity and the prevalence of diseases. This suggests a more complex interplay of environmental and health elements.

What is Modernization theory, and how does it view the role of Western countries in development?

Modernization theory is a prominent theory that emerged as a solution to underdevelopment, emphasizing the positive role of Western countries in modernizing and facilitating development in non-Western nations. It suggests that societies progress through stages, moving from traditional to modern, industrialized forms.

What are the three main components that constitute the theory of modernization?

The theory of modernization is composed of three key parts: first, a hierarchical classification of nations or societies, explaining how 'modernized' societies differ from others; second, a specification of how societies achieve modernization, comparing factors that promote or hinder transformation; and third, generalizations about how the elements of a modernized society integrate, including stages of modernization and ideal types of successfully modernized countries.

What moral imperative did developed nations, particularly the U.S., feel regarding former colonies after World War II, according to Modernization theory?

After World War II, world leaders, especially in the U.S., perceived former colonies as regions requiring increased intervention due to widespread suffering among their populations. This led to a moral imperative for developed nations to offer assistance, enabling these countries to industrialize and modernize in a manner similar to the First World.

Who was a notable contributor to Modernization theory, and what economic model did he develop?

Walt Whitman Rostow was one of the most notable contributors to Modernization theory. He developed an economic model outlining five stages of growth for nations to follow, detailed in his essay, 'The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto'.

What are Walt Whitman Rostow's Five Stages of Economic Growth?

Walt Whitman Rostow's Five Stages of Economic Growth are: 1) The Traditional Society, 2) The Preconditions for take-off, 3) The Take-off, 4) The Drive to Maturity, and 5) The Age of High Mass Consumption. These stages describe a linear progression from a feudal, 'backward' society to a modern, industrialized one.

How does Rostow's model simplify the issue of inequality between nations?

Rostow's model simplifies the complex inequality between nations by presenting national growth as a linear path to modernization, with industrialization as the key to development. It suggests that different societies are merely at varying stages of growth because they began the development process at different times, implying that inequality will eventually disappear through contact with modernized cultures.

What is the core premise of Dependency theory?

Dependency theory, developed by various intellectuals in the mid-20th century, posits that the wealthy nations of the world require a subjugated peripheral group of poorer states to maintain their wealth. It argues that the poverty of peripheral countries stems not from a lack of integration into the world system, but from the specific, exploitative manner of their integration.

How do wealthy nations, according to Dependency theory, perpetuate a state of dependency?

According to Dependency theory, wealthy nations actively, though not always consciously, perpetuate a state of dependency through various policies and initiatives. This dependency is extensive, encompassing economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, sport, and all aspects of human resource development, with wealthy nations setting the rules of international trade and commerce.

What consequences might dependent nations face if they attempt to resist the influences of dependency?

Any attempts by dependent nations to resist the influences of dependency, as described by the theory, could potentially lead to economic sanctions or even military invasion and control. However, the theory notes that dependency is more commonly enforced through the wealthy nations' control over international trade and commerce rules.

Who was Raul Prebisch, and what did his research reveal about the wealth of nations in relation to Dependency theory?

Raul Prebisch was an advocate of Dependency theory who emerged in the 1950s. His research indicated that the wealth of poor nations tended to decrease as the wealth of rich nations increased, suggesting a direct, inverse relationship between the economic fortunes of core and peripheral countries.

How did some dependency theorists, like Andre Gunder Frank and Walter Rodney, adapt the theory?

Some dependency theorists, most notably Andre Gunder Frank and Walter Rodney, adapted the theory to incorporate Marxist principles. This adaptation integrated the concept of class struggle and historical materialism into the analysis of international economic relations.

What is a key difference between 'Standard' Dependency theory and Marxism?

A key difference is that 'Standard' Dependency theory sharply diverges from Marxism by arguing against internationalism and expressing little hope for progress in less developed nations towards industrialization or a liberating revolution. It suggests a more entrenched and difficult-to-break cycle of dependency.

Who refined the Marxist aspect of Dependency theory and introduced the 'world system' concept?

The American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein refined the Marxist aspect of Dependency theory, introducing what he termed the 'world system.' This framework provides a more detailed structural analysis of global economic and political relationships.

What additional layer does World-system theory add to the structure of the world, according to dependency theorists?

World-system theory adds the concept of the 'semi-periphery' to the structure described by dependency theorists, which includes a core and a periphery. The semi-periphery consists of countries like Brazil and South Africa, which possess both developed urban areas and significant rural poverty, making them difficult to categorize simply as core or periphery.

How does World-system theory challenge the linear model of modernization?

World-system theory directly challenges the linear model of modernization, which suggests that all countries are on a trajectory of development. Instead, WST argues that development and underdevelopment are created simultaneously within the global system, implying that not every nation can develop concurrently.

According to Brazilian social scientist Theotonio Dos Santos, what does 'dependence' signify?

According to Brazilian social scientist Theotonio Dos Santos, dependence describes a situation where the economies of certain countries are conditioned by the development and expansion of another dominant economy to which they are subject. He further clarifies that this interdependence, particularly in world trade, becomes dependence when dominant countries can create it as a reflection of their own expansion, potentially harming the subordinate economy.

What did Guyanese Marxist historian Walter Rodney contend was the decisive negative consequence of colonialism for Africa?

Walter Rodney, a leading theorist on underdevelopment, contended that the decisive negative consequence of the short period of colonialism for Africa stemmed primarily from Africa's loss of power. He argued that power is the ultimate determinant in human society, crucial for defending interests and imposing will, and that relinquishing power entirely to another society is itself a form of underdevelopment.

How did Walter Rodney offer a broader critique of the term 'underdevelopment' when comparing economies?

Walter Rodney offered a broader critique of the term 'underdevelopment,' stating that if it were related to anything other than comparing economies, the United States would be the most underdeveloped country. He justified this by pointing to the U.S.'s practice of massive external oppression combined with internal exploitation, brutality, and psychiatric disorder.

What does the image caption 'Slum in Kibera, Kenya (2010)' illustrate in the context of underdevelopment?

The image caption 'Slum in Kibera, Kenya (2010)' visually represents a common manifestation of underdevelopment, depicting a slum in Kibera, Kenya. This serves as an example of the widespread poverty and inadequate living conditions often associated with underdeveloped states.

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Defining Underdevelopment

A State of Lesser Well-being

In the discourse of international development, "underdevelopment" refers to a comprehensive condition or phenomenon that is analyzed and critiqued by scholars across economics, development studies, and postcolonial studies. It serves as a benchmark to differentiate states based on various human development indicators, including macroeconomic growth, public health, educational attainment, and overall standards of living. An "underdeveloped" state is typically conceptualized as the antithesis of a "developed," modern, or industrialized nation, often characterized by less stable economies, less democratic political systems, higher rates of poverty and malnutrition, and weaker public health and education infrastructures.

Rodney's Dual Perspective

Walter Rodney, a prominent theorist on underdevelopment, posits that the concept fundamentally comprises two interconnected elements. Firstly, it involves a comparative aspect, where one nation's state is measured against another's. Secondly, and more critically, it highlights a relationship of exploitation, specifically the systematic exploitation of one country by another. This perspective underscores that underdevelopment is not merely a lack of progress but an active process shaped by external forces and power dynamics.^[1]

Historical Trajectories

Origins of the Concept

Critical development and postcolonial studies often trace the genesis of "development," "developed," and "underdevelopment" to two pivotal historical periods. The first is the colonial era, during which colonial powers systematically extracted labor and natural resources from subjugated territories. The second, and perhaps more frequently cited, is the post-World War II period, which saw the emergence of "development" as a concerted project of intervention in the so-called "Third World." Mexican activist Gustavo Esteva famously asserted that underdevelopment was "born" when U.S. President Harry Truman delivered his inaugural address in 1949, effectively "discovering" mass poverty in these regions and categorizing over half the world's nations by their perceived deficiencies.^[2]

Eurocentric Discourse and Economic Focus

The prevailing Eurocentric development discourse, often imbued with an aura of expert authority, frequently conflated development primarily with economic growth. This narrow interpretation reduced the multifaceted issue of underdevelopment to an economic problem, leading to solutions that were predominantly economic in nature. Consequently, these interventions often failed to adequately address the profound political and social contexts, such as enduring colonial legacies and the geopolitical complexities of the Cold War, which significantly contributed to and perpetuated underdevelopment.^[3]

The Green Revolution's Complex Legacy

The Green Revolution stands as a quintessential example of a global development intervention. Initiated by developed nations, particularly the U.S. and Canada, it aimed to modernize the agricultural sector in the postcolonial world by exporting industrial agricultural production models. Initially, surplus crops were provided as food aid to mitigate widespread hunger, leading to significant dependency in recipient countries like India on crops that could not be locally grown. This aid became conditional on adopting the industrial agricultural model.^[4]

Beyond its agricultural aims, the "Green" Revolution was also strategically employed to counter the "Red," or communist, revolution, with the belief that hunger could fuel peasant uprisings.^[4] While it did increase crop yields in the short term, the industrial model necessitated costly inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, and new irrigation systems. This created a new form of dependency on transnational corporations supplying these inputs, often reducing farmers' profits despite increased yields. Ultimately, while boosting production, the Green Revolution exacerbated poverty among vulnerable populations in many countries now classified as underdeveloped.

Theoretical Frameworks

Geographical Determinants

Early economic thinkers like Adam Smith recognized the importance of geography, particularly coastal access for sea trade, in national prosperity. More recently, Jeffrey Sachs and his collaborators have systematically demonstrated this relationship, highlighting how geographical factors interact with agricultural productivity and disease prevalence to influence underdevelopment.^[5] Jared Diamond further expanded on this, proposing that continental alignment played a crucial role; the east-west orientation of Eurasia facilitated the diffusion of useful agricultural species, whereas the north-south alignments of the Americas and Africa inhibited such spread, impacting early development trajectories.^[6]

Modernization Theory

Modernization theory emerged as a significant framework in the mid-20th century, positing that Western nations play a positive role in facilitating modernization and development in non-Western contexts. This theory, often contrasted with dependency theory, identifies nations hierarchically, explaining how "modernized" societies differ from others. It specifies factors conducive to societal transformation and generalizes about the integration of parts within a modernized society, often outlining stages of development.^[7]

One of the most influential proponents of modernization theory was Walt Whitman Rostow, who proposed a linear economic model of five stages of growth that nations supposedly follow:^[8]

The Traditional Society: Characterized by pre-Newtonian science and technology, agrarian economy, and hierarchical social structures.
The Preconditions for Take-off: Emergence of new ideas, institutions, and entrepreneurship, leading to a shift towards commercial agriculture and external trade.
The Take-off: Rapid industrialization, sustained economic growth, and a significant increase in investment.
The Drive to Maturity: Diversification of the industrial base, technological advancement, and integration into the global economy.
The Age of High Mass Consumption: Focus shifts from production to consumption, with high incomes and widespread access to consumer goods and services.

Rostow's model suggests that inequality between states is merely a reflection of different stages of growth, implying that all nations are on a trajectory towards modernity, accelerated by contact with modernized cultures and their economic and political models.^[9]

Dependency Theory

Dependency theory, developed by intellectuals from both the "Third World" and "First World" in the mid-20th century, posits that the wealth of developed nations is predicated upon the subjugation and underdevelopment of a peripheral group of poorer states. This theory argues that the poverty of peripheral countries is not due to their lack of integration into the world system, but precisely because of the exploitative nature of their integration.^[10]

These peripheral nations supply natural resources, cheap labor, and consumer markets essential for the prosperity of wealthy nations. Dependency is actively, though not always consciously, perpetuated through various policies and initiatives spanning economics, media control, politics, banking, finance, education, and human resource development. Any attempts by dependent nations to resist this influence can be met with economic sanctions or even military intervention, though the primary mechanism of enforcement lies in the wealthy nations' control over international trade and commerce rules.

Key Theorists & Contributions

Raul Prebisch & Unequal Exchange

Raul Prebisch's pioneering research in the 1950s was instrumental in the emergence of dependency theory. He observed a consistent trend where the wealth of poorer nations tended to decline as the wealth of richer nations increased. This insight challenged conventional economic wisdom and laid the groundwork for understanding how global economic structures could inherently disadvantage developing countries, leading to a division of the theory into various schools of thought.^[10]

Frank, Rodney & Marxist Adaptations

Andre Gunder Frank and Walter Rodney significantly adapted dependency theory to a Marxist framework. Rodney, a Guyanese Marxist historian, argued that Africa's underdevelopment was fundamentally a consequence of losing power during colonialism. He asserted that power is the ultimate determinant in human society, influencing a group's ability to defend its interests and survive as a physical and cultural entity. The forced relinquishment of power to another society, he contended, is itself a profound form of underdevelopment.^[11]

Immanuel Wallerstein's World-System

American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein refined the Marxist dimensions of dependency theory, developing what he termed "World-System Theory." This framework introduces a tripartite global structure: the core, the periphery, and the semi-periphery. The semi-periphery, exemplified by nations like Brazil and South Africa, exhibits characteristics of both core (developed urban areas) and periphery (extensive rural poverty). Wallerstein's theory posits that development and underdevelopment are not sequential stages but are created simultaneously through the dynamic of surplus extraction, which occurs both between nations and within them, between elite and impoverished classes.^[10]

Theotonio Dos Santos on Economic Conditioning

Brazilian social scientist Theotonio Dos Santos further clarified the concept of dependence, defining it as a situation where the economies of certain countries are conditioned by the development and expansion of another, to which the former is subordinate. He emphasized that while interdependence exists in world trade, it transforms into dependence when dominant countries leverage their expansion to negatively impact the immediate economy of subordinate nations. This highlights the asymmetrical power relations inherent in global economic interactions.

Critiques of the Concept

Beyond Economic Comparison

Walter Rodney offered a profound critique of the term "underdevelopment" itself, particularly when it is narrowly applied to economic comparisons. He argued that if the concept were to encompass factors beyond mere economic metrics, such as external oppression, internal exploitation, brutality, and psychiatric disorder, then nations like the United States would arguably be among the most "underdeveloped" in the world. This perspective challenges the conventional, often Eurocentric, understanding of development and underdevelopment, urging a more holistic and ethically informed assessment of societal well-being and global power dynamics.^[1]

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References

Modernization theory â Economics Dictionary and Research Guide

A full list of references for this article are available at the Underdevelopment Wikipedia page

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The Unseen Architectures

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Defining Underdevelopment ℹ️

📉 A State of Lesser Well-being

🔗 Rodney's Dual Perspective

Historical Trajectories 📜

🕰️ Origins of the Concept

🌍 Eurocentric Discourse and Economic Focus

🌾 The Green Revolution's Complex Legacy

Theoretical Frameworks 📚

🗺️ Geographical Determinants

📈 Modernization Theory

⛓️ Dependency Theory

Key Theorists & Contributions 🧠

⚖️ Raul Prebisch & Unequal Exchange

✊ Frank, Rodney & Marxist Adaptations

🌐 Immanuel Wallerstein's World-System

🔄 Theotonio Dos Santos on Economic Conditioning

Critiques of the Concept 💬

🔍 Beyond Economic Comparison

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Underdevelopment

A State of Lesser Well-being

Rodney's Dual Perspective

Historical Trajectories

Origins of the Concept

Eurocentric Discourse and Economic Focus

The Green Revolution's Complex Legacy

Theoretical Frameworks

Geographical Determinants

Modernization Theory

Dependency Theory

Key Theorists & Contributions

Raul Prebisch & Unequal Exchange

Frank, Rodney & Marxist Adaptations

Immanuel Wallerstein's World-System

Theotonio Dos Santos on Economic Conditioning

Critiques of the Concept

Beyond Economic Comparison

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice