What is Vedanta, and what is its significance in Hindu philosophy?

Vedanta, also known as Uttara Mimamsa, is one of the six orthodox traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. Its name signifies the 'conclusion of the Vedas,' and it encompasses philosophical ideas that emerged from or reinterpreted the speculations found in the Upanishads, focusing on devotion, knowledge, and liberation.

What are the three foundational texts that all Vedanta traditions interpret?

All major traditions of Vedanta base their interpretations on a common group of texts known as the Prasthanatrayi, meaning 'the three sources.' These core texts are the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.

What does the term 'Vedanta' literally mean, and what does it refer to in its original context?

The term 'Vedanta' is derived from Sanskrit, combining 'Veda' (referring to the sacred Vedic texts) and 'anta' (meaning 'end'). Literally, it means 'the end of the Vedas,' and it originally referred to the Upanishads, which represent the speculative and philosophical conclusions of the Vedic corpus.

How does Vedanta differ from Purva Mimamsa in its focus?

Vedanta is also called Uttara Mimamsa, meaning 'the latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry.' This contrasts with Purva Mimamsa, the 'former enquiry,' which primarily deals with the ritualistic sections (karma-kanda) of the Vedas, while Vedanta concerns itself with the deeper philosophical questions about the relationship between humans and the Absolute reality.

What are the common features shared by most Vedanta traditions?

Most Vedanta traditions share several common features, including the investigation of Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Ātman (the individual self), a reliance on the Prasthānatrayī for scriptural authority, the belief that Brahman is the unchanging cause of the world, the concept of karma and rebirth, and the ultimate goal of moksha (liberation).

Which metaphysical categories are central to Vedanta philosophy?

Vedanta philosophy discusses three fundamental metaphysical categories: Brahman or Īśvara (the ultimate reality), Ātman or Jīva (the individual soul or self), and Prakriti or Jagat (the empirical world, including matter and the physical universe).

How does Advaita Vedanta's conception of Brahman differ from that of Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita?

Advaita Vedanta, as formulated by Adi Shankara, posits two conceptions of Brahman: Parā (Higher Brahman), which is undifferentiated and absolute, and Aparā (Lower Brahman), which is Brahman with attributes (saguna Brahman) and represents the personal God. Ramanuja, in Vishishtadvaita, rejects the idea of an inconceivable undifferentiated Absolute and instead adopts a theistic interpretation, viewing Brahman as Īśvara, the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes and the one Ultimate Reality.

What is the core tenet of Advaita Vedanta regarding the relationship between Ātman and Brahman?

Advaita Vedanta, meaning 'non-dualism,' asserts that the individual soul (Ātman) is identical with the ultimate reality (Brahman). There is no fundamental difference between the self and the Absolute, and realizing this oneness is the path to liberation.

How does Vishishtadvaita Vedanta describe the relationship between the individual soul (Jīvātman) and Brahman?

Vishishtadvaita, or 'qualified non-dualism,' posits that the individual soul (Jīvātman) is different from Brahman (understood as Vishnu), though eternally connected as His mode. It emphasizes an organic unity, where Brahman, in relation to all souls and the material universe, is the sole Ultimate Reality.

What is the fundamental difference between Dvaita Vedanta and Advaita Vedanta?

Dvaita Vedanta, meaning 'dualism,' asserts that the individual soul (Jīvātman) is always and totally different from Brahman (Vishnu). This contrasts sharply with Advaita Vedanta's core tenet of the identity between Ātman and Brahman.

What are the six recognized means of valid knowledge (pramanas) in Indian philosophy?

The six pramanas, or means of valid knowledge, identified in Indian philosophies are: Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison and analogy), Arthapatti (postulation), Anupalabdhi (non-perception or cognitive proof), and Shabda (scriptural testimony or verbal testimony of reliable experts).

How do different Vedanta schools vary in their acceptance of the six pramanas?

While Advaita Vedanta accepts all six pramanas, schools like Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita primarily accept only three: perception, inference, and scriptural testimony. This difference in epistemological approach highlights the diverse interpretations within Vedanta.

What is Satkāryavāda, and how does it relate to the Vedanta theory of cause and effect?

Satkāryavāda is the theory that the effect pre-exists in the cause. Most Vedanta schools, along with Samkhya, subscribe to this, specifically through Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a real transformation of Brahman. However, post-Shankara Advaita Vedantists favor Vivartavada, viewing the world as an unreal transformation of Brahman.

Who are considered the most prominent scholars associated with Advaita Vedanta?

Gaudapada, often considered the teacher or distant predecessor of Adi Shankara, and Adi Shankara himself (8th century CE) are the most prominent figures associated with Advaita Vedanta. Vidyaranya (14th century) and later Neo-Vedantins also played significant roles in popularizing this school.

Who founded the Vishishtadvaita school of Vedanta, and what is its central idea?

Ramanuja, active in the 11th-12th centuries CE, is the most influential philosopher of the Vishishtadvaita tradition. His philosophy, known as 'qualified non-dualism,' asserts that while the individual soul and Brahman are distinct, they are in an inseparable, qualified unity.

Who is the primary proponent of Dvaita Vedanta, and what is its core philosophical stance?

Madhvacharya, who lived in the 13th century CE, is the founder of Dvaita Vedanta, also known as Tattvavada. His philosophy champions unqualified dualism, asserting fundamental and eternal differences between Brahman (Vishnu), individual souls, and matter.

What is Shuddhadvaita, and who is its main proponent?

Shuddhadvaita, meaning 'pure non-dualism,' was propounded by Vallabhacharya (15th-16th century CE). This school posits that the entire universe is real and is essentially Brahman, specifically in the form of Krishna, without any illusory aspect.

What philosophical concept is associated with Chaitanya Mahaprabhu?

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th-16th century CE) is the prime exponent of Achintya Bheda Abheda, a philosophy of 'inconceivable difference in non-difference.' This school is foundational to the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition.

What is the significance of the Brahma Sutras in the history of Vedanta?

The Brahma Sutras, attributed to Badarayana, are crucial as they summarized and interpreted the teachings of the Upanishads, laying the foundation for the development of various Vedanta schools. Their cryptic nature necessitated extensive commentaries, leading to the diverse interpretations that define Vedanta's different traditions.

What historical period saw the rise of Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta, and what characterized it?

Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta saw significant growth after the 12th century CE, coinciding with the expansion of the Bhakti movement. This period was marked by the development of Vaishnava Sampradayas (denominations) founded by scholars like Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya, and Vallabhacharya, who often challenged the doctrines of Advaita Vedanta and emphasized devotional worship.

What is Neo-Vedanta, and when did it emerge?

Neo-Vedanta, also referred to as 'Hindu modernism' or 'neo-Hinduism,' emerged in the 19th century. It represents novel interpretations of Hinduism, often characterized by a universalist approach that sought to synthesize diverse philosophical traditions and respond to colonial influences.

Who is considered a major proponent in popularizing the Neo-Vedanta interpretation of Advaita Vedanta?

Swami Vivekananda is considered a major proponent in popularizing the Neo-Vedanta interpretation, particularly its universalist and perennialist aspects. He played a significant role in the revival of Hinduism and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the West through the Vedanta Society.

What criticism has been leveled against the Neo-Vedanta label?

Critics argue that the Neo-Vedanta approach, by emphasizing overarching tolerance and synthesizing diverse traditions, can obscure the historical internal tensions and specific differences within Hinduism and Vedanta. Some scholars, like Bimal Krishna Matilal, suggest it's a construct influenced by Western perceptions and academic trends, rather than purely an indigenous development.

How has Vedanta influenced other traditions within Hinduism?

Vedanta has profoundly influenced various Hindu traditions. For example, Sri Vaishnavism is based on Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, the Bhakti movements in North and East India draw from Bhedabheda Vedanta, and the Madhva school in Karnataka is rooted in Dvaita Vedanta. Even Shaivism and Shaktism show associations and premises influenced by Vedanta.

What influence did Vedanta have on Western thinkers?

Vedanta, particularly the Upanishads and Advaita philosophy, significantly influenced Western thinkers like Arthur Schopenhauer, who found consolation in its ideas. Scholars like Paul Deussen and Max Müller also drew parallels between Vedanta and Western philosophies, notably Spinoza's, shaping early Indology and Western perceptions of Indian thought.

What similarities have been noted between Vedanta and the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza?

Early scholars like Theodore Goldstücker and Max Müller observed striking similarities between the monistic and pantheistic aspects of Vedanta, particularly Advaita, and Spinoza's philosophy. Both systems describe an ultimate, undifferentiated reality (Brahman/Substantia) as the fundamental substance of existence.

What is the significance of the Upanishads in the context of Vedanta?

The Upanishads are considered the 'end of the Vedas' and form the primary scriptural basis for Vedanta. They contain the philosophical speculations and insights that Vedanta traditions interpret and synthesize, focusing on the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate goal of liberation.

What is the role of the Brahma Sutras in synthesizing Upanishadic teachings?

The Brahma Sutras, also known as the Vedanta Sutra, were composed by Badarayana to systematically organize and interpret the diverse teachings found in the Upanishads. They serve as a foundational text for all Vedanta schools, providing a framework for their philosophical arguments.

What is the meaning of 'Bhedabheda' in the context of Vedanta?

Bhedabheda translates to 'difference and non-difference.' It represents a tradition within Vedanta, notably including schools like Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bheda Abheda, which emphasize that the individual self (Jīvātman) is simultaneously different from and not different from Brahman.

Who was Nimbarka, and what school of Vedanta did he found?

Nimbarka, believed to have lived in the 7th century CE, founded the Dvaitadvaita school of Vedanta. This philosophy, also known as Bhedabheda, posits that the individual soul, matter, and Brahman are three distinct yet related realities, existing in a state of both difference and non-difference.

What is the primary focus of Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta?

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita focuses on qualified non-dualism, emphasizing devotion (bhakti) to a personal God (Vishnu) as the means to spiritual liberation. It teaches that while souls are distinct from God, they are intrinsically connected to Him as His attributes or body, forming an organic whole.

What is the key characteristic of Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta?

Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta is characterized by its strong emphasis on dualism, asserting fundamental differences not only between Brahman (Vishnu) and individual souls but also among souls themselves and between souls and matter. This philosophical stance contrasts with the monistic and non-dualistic views of other Vedanta schools.

What is the concept of 'Maya' in Advaita Vedanta?

In Advaita Vedanta, Maya refers to the concept of illusion or cosmic ignorance that makes the changing, empirical world appear real and distinct from Brahman. It is considered the power that veils the ultimate non-dual reality and creates the perception of multiplicity.

What is the role of 'Bhakti' in theistic Vedanta traditions?

In theistic Vedanta traditions, such as Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita, Bhakti, or devotional worship towards a personal God (often Vishnu), is considered a primary means to achieve spiritual liberation (moksha). This devotion is seen as a way to cultivate a loving relationship with the Divine and receive His grace.

What is the significance of the term 'Pramana' in Vedanta epistemology?

Pramana, meaning 'means of valid knowledge,' is a central concept in Vedanta epistemology. It refers to the reliable methods by which true knowledge can be acquired, with different Vedanta schools debating the validity and hierarchy of various pramanas like perception, inference, and scriptural testimony.

Who was Adi Shankara, and what is his contribution to Vedanta?

Adi Shankara (c. 8th-9th century CE) is widely regarded as the most influential proponent of Advaita Vedanta. He elaborated on the philosophy of Gaudapada and integrated it with the Brahma Sutras, writing extensive commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and establishing Advaita as a major philosophical system.

What is the 'Prasthānatrayī'?

The Prasthānatrayī, meaning 'the three sources,' refers to the foundational scriptural texts of Vedanta: the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. All major Vedanta traditions provide their interpretations of these texts.

What is the 'Brahma Sutras' also known as?

The Brahma Sutras, a key text in Vedanta philosophy, are also known as the Vedanta Sutra or the Nyaya Prasthana/Yukti Prasthana, highlighting their role as a reasoned basis for Vedanta thought.

What is the historical context of Vedanta's development before Adi Shankara?

Before Adi Shankara (roughly before the 8th century CE), Vedanta was considered a peripheral school of thought. While the Brahma Sutras (compiled around 400-450 CE) provided a systematic framework, various early teachers like Ashmarathya, Audulomi, and Gaudapada contributed to its development, with Bhedabheda being a prominent early tradition.

How did the Swaminarayan Darshana relate to existing Vedanta traditions?

The Swaminarayan Darshana, also known as Akshar-Purushottam Darshan, founded by Swaminarayan (18th-19th century CE), is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita tradition. It posits two distinct eternal realities, Parabrahman (Purushottam) and Aksharbrahman, and is notably propagated by the BAPS organization.

What is the 'Parinamavada' view on the relationship between Brahman and the world?

Parinamavada, supported by the Brahma Sutras and early Vedantins, posits that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman. This view suggests that Brahman undergoes a genuine change to become the manifest universe.

What is the 'Vivartavada' view on the relationship between Brahman and the world?

Vivartavada, a view held by post-Shankara Advaita Vedantists, proposes that the world is merely an unreal or apparent transformation (vivarta) of Brahman. In this perspective, Brahman itself does not truly change, but the world appears as a transformation due to Maya (illusion).

What is the significance of the term 'Āstika' in relation to Vedanta?

Vedanta is classified as one of the six orthodox (āstika) traditions of Hindu philosophy. Āstika traditions are those that accept the authority of the Vedas, distinguishing them from heterodox (nāstika) schools like Buddhism and Jainism.

What role did the Bhakti movement play in the development of Vedanta?

The Bhakti movement, which gained prominence after the 12th century, significantly influenced Vedanta by emphasizing devotional practices. Many Vaishnava Vedanta traditions, such as those founded by Ramanuja, Madhva, and Vallabha, integrated Bhakti into their philosophical systems, often presenting it as a path to liberation alongside or even above knowledge.

How did Neo-Vedanta attempt to reconcile different Hindu philosophical schools?

Neo-Vedantins, emerging in the 19th century, often argued that the various orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy (like Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta) represented different perspectives on a single, underlying truth. They promoted a view of overarching tolerance and acceptance, suggesting these schools were complementary rather than contradictory.

What is the primary goal of spiritual practice in most Vedanta traditions?

The primary goal in most Vedanta traditions is moksha, which means liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). This liberation is typically achieved through a combination of knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), and ethical conduct, depending on the specific school's emphasis.

What is the relationship between Brahman and the concept of 'Īśvara' in Vedanta?

Brahman is the ultimate, unchanging reality, while Īśvara is often used to refer to the personal God, or Brahman with attributes (saguna Brahman). Different Vedanta schools interpret the relationship between Brahman and Īśvara differently; for example, Advaita sees Īśvara as a manifestation of Brahman, while Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita identify Īśvara (Vishnu) directly with Brahman.

What is the significance of 'Ātman' in Vedanta philosophy?

Ātman, often translated as the individual soul or self, is a central concept in Vedanta. The nature of Ātman and its relationship to Brahman is a key point of divergence among Vedanta schools, with Advaita asserting their identity, while others maintain a distinction.

How did the Vedanta tradition influence the broader landscape of Hinduism?

Vedanta became the most influential school of theology in Hinduism, providing theoretical foundations for many religious sects and popular movements. Its philosophical concepts permeated Hindu literature, including epics and Puranas, and it became a central ideology during the Hindu renaissance in the 19th century.

What is the meaning of 'Uttara Mimamsa'?

Uttara Mimamsa, another name for Vedanta, translates to 'the latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry.' This designation distinguishes it from Purva Mimamsa ('the former enquiry'), which focused on Vedic rituals, while Uttara Mimamsa delves into the deeper philosophical conclusions of the Vedas, particularly the Upanishads.

What is the role of scripture (Śruti) in Vedanta epistemology?

Scripture, particularly the Vedas and Upanishads (known as Śruti), is considered the primary and most reliable source of knowledge (pramana) for spiritual matters in Vedanta. While perception and inference are also recognized, scriptural testimony holds ultimate authority, especially concerning the nature of Brahman.

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Introduction

Orthodox Tradition

Vedanta, meaning "the conclusion of the Vedas," is one of the six orthodox (āstika) traditions of Hindu philosophy. It encompasses the profound ideas that emerged from, or aligned with, the speculations found within the Upanishads.

Core Focus

Vedanta centers on the investigation of Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the self), exploring concepts of ontology, soteriology, and epistemology. It emphasizes devotion, knowledge, and liberation as paths to understanding the Absolute.

Global Significance

While deeply rooted in Indian tradition, Vedanta's philosophical inquiries into the nature of reality, consciousness, and existence have resonated globally, influencing diverse intellectual and spiritual traditions.

Etymology & Nomenclature

Meaning of Vedanta

The term "Vedanta" is derived from Sanskrit: वेद (Veda) meaning "sacred knowledge" and अंत (anta) meaning "end" or "conclusion." Thus, Vedanta signifies "the end of the Vedas" or "the culmination of Vedic wisdom."

Canonical Texts

Originally referring to the Upanishads, the meaning of Vedanta expanded to include interpretations of the Prasthānatrayī—the three foundational sources: the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.

Uttara Mimamsa

Vedanta is also known as Uttara Mimāṃsā, meaning "the latter inquiry," contrasting with Pūrva Mimāṃsā ("the former inquiry"). While Pūrva Mimāṃsā focuses on Vedic rituals, Uttara Mimāṃsā delves into the deeper philosophical and metaphysical questions.

Core Philosophy

Brahman & Atman

A central tenet across Vedanta traditions is the investigation of Brahman (the ultimate, absolute reality) and Ātman (the individual self or soul). The relationship between these two is a primary point of divergence among the schools.

Scriptural Authority

Vedanta places paramount importance on scriptural testimony (śabda) as the most reliable means of knowledge (pramāṇa) for understanding spiritual truths beyond empirical perception or logical inference.

Samsara & Moksha

All Vedanta traditions accept the concepts of rebirth (saṃsāra) and the ultimate goal of liberation (mokṣa) from the cycle of birth and death.

Metaphysical Framework

Brahman: The Absolute

Vedanta posits Brahman as the ultimate reality. Conceptions vary: from the undifferentiated, attributeless Absolute (nirguṇa Brahman) in Advaita, to the personal, attributive God (saguṇa Brahman) in theistic schools like Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.

Ātman: The Self

The nature of the individual self (Ātman or Jīva) and its relationship to Brahman is a key differentiator. Advaita asserts their identity, while Vishishtadvaita sees a qualified non-duality, and Dvaita maintains a fundamental difference.

The World (Jagat/Prakriti)

The empirical world (Jagat or Prakriti) is viewed differently: as an illusion (Maya) in Advaita, as a real manifestation or mode of Brahman in Vishishtadvaita, or as a distinct, real entity in Dvaita.

Epistemological Foundations

Pramana: Means of Knowledge

Vedanta relies on valid means of knowledge (pramāṇa) to ascertain truth. The primary means include perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), and scriptural testimony (śabda).

Primacy of Scripture

While perception and inference are acknowledged, scriptural testimony (śruti), particularly the Upanishads, is considered the ultimate authority for understanding Brahman, as human reason alone is insufficient for comprehending the Absolute.

School Disagreements

The validity and hierarchy of these pramāṇas differ among schools. Advaita accepts six, while Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita typically accept three, with varying emphasis on the supremacy of scriptural testimony.

Major Schools of Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta

Propounded by Adi Shankara, this school emphasizes non-dualism (advaita), asserting the identity of Ātman and Brahman. The world is often viewed as Maya (illusion).

Vishishtadvaita

Championed by Ramanuja, this "qualified non-dualism" posits that Ātman and Brahman are distinct yet eternally connected, forming an organic whole. It emphasizes devotion (bhakti) to a personal God (Vishnu).

Dvaita Vedanta

Founded by Madhvacharya, this dualistic school asserts a fundamental and eternal difference between Brahman (Vishnu), the individual souls (Jivas), and the material world (Jagat).

Bhedabheda

This tradition, encompassing schools like Nimbarka's Dvaitadvaita and Chaitanya's Achintya Bheda Abheda, posits that reality is simultaneously different and non-different, reconciling seemingly contradictory Upanishadic statements.

Historical Trajectory

Early Foundations

Vedanta's roots lie in the Upanishads, the concluding philosophical sections of the Vedas. Early systematization efforts preceded Badarayana's Brahma Sutras (c. 400-450 CE), which synthesized Upanishadic thought and refuted rival philosophies.

Classical Period

The period between the Brahma Sutras and Adi Shankara (5th-8th centuries) saw the development of various schools, notably Bhedabheda. Shankara's Advaita Vedanta emerged as a highly influential synthesis.

Medieval & Modern Developments

The Bhakti movement spurred the growth of theistic Vedanta schools (Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, etc.) from the 11th century onwards. Modern Vedanta, including Neo-Vedanta, emerged in the 19th century, reinterpreting and disseminating these philosophies globally.

Profound Influence

Within Hinduism

Vedanta has profoundly shaped Hinduism, providing the philosophical underpinnings for numerous devotional traditions (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism) and influencing popular literature, ethics, and spiritual practices.

Global Reach

Through translations and the work of figures like Swami Vivekananda, Vedanta, particularly Advaita Vedanta, gained significant traction in the West, influencing philosophers, theologians, and spiritual seekers, fostering cross-cultural dialogue.

East-West Dialogue

Comparisons drawn between Vedanta and Western philosophies, such as Spinoza's monism, highlight its universal appeal and the shared human quest for understanding ultimate reality, consciousness, and the self.

Key Texts

The Prasthanatrayi

The foundational scriptures for all Vedanta schools are the Prasthānatrayī: the Upanishads (Śruti Prasthāna), the Brahma Sutras (Nyāya Prasthāna), and the Bhagavad Gita (Smṛti Prasthāna).

Upanishads

These ancient texts form the philosophical core of the Vedas, exploring profound questions about Brahman, Ātman, the nature of existence, and the path to liberation.

Brahma Sutras

Attributed to Badarayana, these aphorisms systematically synthesize Upanishadic teachings, providing a framework for subsequent Vedantic commentaries and debates.

Bhagavad Gita

This revered scripture, part of the Mahabharata, offers a synthesis of various philosophical paths—knowledge (jnana), action (karma), and devotion (bhakti)—within a narrative context.

Influential Teachers

Advaita Masters

Key figures include Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, and later proponents like Vidyaranya, who articulated and disseminated the non-dualistic philosophy.

Vishishtadvaita Gurus

Ramanuja, Vedanta Desika, and Nathamuni are central figures in this qualified non-dualistic tradition, emphasizing devotion to a personal God.

Dvaita Acharyas

Madhvacharya, Jayatirtha, and Vyasatirtha laid the foundation for the dualistic school, emphasizing the distinct reality of Brahman and the individual soul.

Modern Thinkers

Figures like Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan played pivotal roles in reinterpreting and popularizing Vedanta in modern times, both in India and globally.

Core Concepts

Brahman

The ultimate, unchanging reality; the Absolute; the source and ground of all existence. Its nature is described differently across Vedanta schools.

Ātman

The individual self or soul, often considered identical to Brahman (Advaita) or distinct yet related (Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita).

Samsara

The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, driven by karma, from which liberation (Moksha) is sought.

Karma

The law of cause and effect, where actions determine future consequences and influence one's journey through Samsara.

Moksha

Liberation from Samsara; the ultimate spiritual goal, achieved through various paths like knowledge, devotion, or right action, depending on the school.

Maya

Often translated as "illusion," Maya refers to the power that conceals the true nature of reality (Brahman) and projects the phenomenal world. Its exact nature and role are debated among schools.

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References

A few Indian scholars such as Vedvyasa discuss ten; Krtakoti discusses eight; six is most widely accepted: see Nicholson (2010, pp. 149â150)

Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in India.

The VedantaâsÅ«tra are known by a variety of names, including (1) BrahmaâsÅ«tra, (2) ÅÄrÄ«rakaâsutra, (3) BÄdarÄyaá¹aâsÅ«tra and (4) UttaraâmÄ«mÄá¹sÄ.

Estimates of the date of BÄdarÄyana's lifetime differ. Pandey 2000, p. 4

Nicholson (2010, p. 27) writes: "The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."

Koller 2013, pp. 100â106; Sharma 1994, p. 211

Raju 1992, pp. 176â177; Isaeva 1992, p. 35 with footnote 30

Fowler 2002, pp. 34, 66; Flood 1996, pp. 238â239

Das 1952; Doniger & Stefon 2015; Lochtefeld 2000, p. 122; Sheridan 1991, p. 136

Ranganathan; Grimes 1990, pp. 6â7

Bartley, Christopher (2015). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources, p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic.

Bryant, Edwin. Krishna the Beautiful Legend of God (Srimad Bhagavata Purana Book X) (Penguin Classics), Introduction (pp. ix - lxxix).

Raju 1992, pp. 176â177, 505â506; Fowler 2002, pp. 49â59, 254, 269, 294â295, 345

Das 1952; Puligandla 1997, p. 222

Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 51; Johnson 2009, p. 'see entry for Atman(self)'

Lipner 1986, pp. 40â41, 51â56, 144; Hiriyanna 2008, pp. 23, 78, 158â162

Fowler 2002, p. 317; Chari 1988, pp. 2, 383

ÄdidevÄnanda 2014, pp. 9â10.

Betty 2010, pp. 215â224; Stoker 2011; Chari 1988, pp. 2, 383

Craig 2000, pp. 517â18; Stoker 2011; Bryant 2007, pp. 361â363

Lochtefeld 2000, pp. 520â521; Chari 1988, pp. 73â76

Potter 2002, pp. 25â26; Bhawuk 2011, p. 172

Bhawuk 2011, p. 172; Chari 1988, pp. 73â76; Flood 1996, pp. 225

Grimes 2006, p. 238; Puligandla 1997, p. 228; Clayton 2006, pp. 53â54

Indich 1995, pp. 65; Gupta 1995, pp. 137â166

Fowler 2002, p. 304; Puligandla 1997, pp. 208â211, 237â239; Sharma 2000, pp. 147â151

[1] Comparative analysis of Brahma Sutra commentaries

Nicholson; Sivananda 1993, p. 247

Das 1952; Hiriyanna 2008, pp. 160â161; O'Flaherty 1986, p. 119

Indich 1995, pp. 1â2, 97â102; Etter 2006, pp. 57â60, 63â65; Perrett 2013, pp. 247â248

Betty 2010, pp. 215â224; Craig 2000, pp. 517â518

Bartley 2013, pp. 1â2, 9â10, 76â79, 87â98; Sullivan 2001, p. 239; Doyle 2006, pp. 59â62

Etter 2006, pp. 57â60, 63â65; van Buitenin 2010

Schultz 1981, pp. 81â84; van Buitenin 2010; Sydnor 2012, pp. 84â87

Stoker 2011; von Dehsen 1999, p. 118

Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 266; Sarma 2000, pp. 19â21

Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 266; Sharma 1962, pp. 417â424; Sharma 1994, p. 373

Sharma 1994, pp. 374â375; Bryant 2007, pp. 361â362

Bryant 2007, p. 407; Gupta 2007, pp. 47â52

Nakamura 1989, p. 436. "... we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the Brahma-sÅ«tra was compiled in its extant form."

Lochtefeld 2000, p. 746; Nakamura 1949, p. 436

Nakamura 2004, p. 3; Sharma 1996, pp. 124â125

Hiriyanna 2008, pp. 19, 21â25, 151â152; Sharma 1994, pp. 239â241; Nicholson 2010, p. 26

Isaeva 1992, p. 36.

Nicholson 2010, pp. 26â27; Mohanty & Wharton 2011

Comans 2000, p. 163; Jagannathan 2011

Olivelle 1992, pp. 17â18; Rigopoulos 1998, pp. 62â63; Phillips 1995, p. 332 with note 68

Olivelle 1992, pp. xâxi, 8â18; Sprockhoff 1976, pp. 277â294, 319â377

Sharma 1994, p. 239; Nikhilananda 2008, pp. 203â206; Nakamura 2004, p. 308; Sharma 1994, p. 239

Jackson 1992; Jackson 1991; Hawley 2015, pp. 304â310.

Sullivan 2001, p. 239; Schultz 1981, pp. 81â84; Bartley 2013, pp. 1â2; Carman 1974, p. 24

Olivelle 1992, pp. 10â11, 17â18; Bartley 2013, pp. 1â4, 52â53, 79

Bernard 1947, pp. 9â12; Sydnor 2012, pp. 0â11, 20â22

Bryant 2007, pp. 12â13, 359â361; Sharma 2000, pp. 77â78

Sharma 1962, pp. 128â129, 180â181; Sharma 1994, pp. 150â151, 372, 433â434; Sharma 2000, pp. 80â81

Lochtefeld 2000, p. 396; Stoker 2011

King 1999, p. 135; Flood 1996, p. 258; King 2002, p. 93

Witz 1998, p. 11; Schuon 1975, p. 91

Brooks 1990, pp. 20â22, 77â79; Nakamura 2004, p. 3

Smith 2003, pp. 126â128; Klostermaier 1984, pp. 177â178

Davis 2014, p. 167 note 21; Dyczkowski 1989, pp. 43â44

Vasugupta 2012, pp. 252, 259; Flood 1996, pp. 162â167

McDaniel 2004, pp. 89â91; Brooks 1990, pp. 35â39; Mahony 1997, p. 274 with note 73

Jones 1801, p. 164.

Goldstucker 1879, p. 32.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Vedanta Wikipedia page

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Vedanta: The Apex of Vedic Wisdom

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Introduction ℹ️

📜 Orthodox Tradition

🧠 Core Focus

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Etymology & Nomenclature 🏷️

🗣️ Meaning of Vedanta

📚 Canonical Texts

🔄 Uttara Mimamsa

Core Philosophy 🧠

✨ Brahman & Atman

📜 Scriptural Authority

🔄 Samsara & Moksha

Metaphysical Framework 🌌

🌟 Brahman: The Absolute

👤 Ātman: The Self

🌍 The World (Jagat/Prakriti)

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🔍 Pramana: Means of Knowledge

📜 Primacy of Scripture

⚖️ School Disagreements

Major Schools of Vedanta 🏛️

⚖️ Advaita Vedanta

🤝 Vishishtadvaita

↔️ Dvaita Vedanta

☯️ Bhedabheda

Historical Trajectory ⏳

📜 Early Foundations

✨ Classical Period

🕉️ Medieval & Modern Developments

Profound Influence 🌍

🇮🇳 Within Hinduism

🌏 Global Reach

🤝 East-West Dialogue

Key Texts 📚

📜 The Prasthanatrayi

📖 Upanishads

⚖️ Brahma Sutras

🙏 Bhagavad Gita

Influential Teachers 👨‍🏫

🕉️ Advaita Masters

🌟 Vishishtadvaita Gurus

↔️ Dvaita Acharyas

💡 Modern Thinkers

Core Concepts ⚛️

✨ Brahman

👤 Ātman

🔄 Samsara

⚖️ Karma

🕊️ Moksha

❓ Maya

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

Orthodox Tradition

Core Focus

Global Significance

Etymology & Nomenclature

Meaning of Vedanta

Canonical Texts

Uttara Mimamsa

Core Philosophy

Brahman & Atman

Scriptural Authority

Samsara & Moksha

Metaphysical Framework

Brahman: The Absolute

Ātman: The Self

The World (Jagat/Prakriti)

Epistemological Foundations

Pramana: Means of Knowledge

Primacy of Scripture

School Disagreements

Major Schools of Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta

Vishishtadvaita

Dvaita Vedanta

Bhedabheda

Historical Trajectory

Early Foundations

Classical Period

Medieval & Modern Developments

Profound Influence

Within Hinduism

Global Reach

East-West Dialogue

Key Texts

The Prasthanatrayi

Upanishads

Brahma Sutras

Bhagavad Gita

Influential Teachers

Advaita Masters

Vishishtadvaita Gurus

Dvaita Acharyas

Modern Thinkers

Core Concepts

Brahman

Ātman

Samsara

Karma

Moksha

Maya

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice