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Unleashing Earth's Fury

A comprehensive exploration of volcanic eruptions, from the subtle effusions of lava to the cataclysmic explosions that reshape landscapes.

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Introduction

Defining Volcanic Eruptions

A volcanic eruption represents the expulsion of material from a volcanic vent or fissure. Volcanologists have categorized these events into several distinct types, often named after iconic volcanoes where such behavior is characteristically observed. While some volcanoes may exhibit a singular eruptive style during an active phase, others can display a complex sequence of different eruption types within a single eruptive series.

Primary Eruptive Categories

Volcanic eruptions are broadly classified into three principal types, each driven by distinct geological processes:

  • Magmatic Eruptions: These are characterized by the decompression of gases dissolved within magma, which provides the propulsive force for its ascent and expulsion.
  • Phreatic Eruptions: Driven by the superheating of steam, these eruptions occur when magma's close proximity causes groundwater to flash into vapor. Notably, phreatic events do not involve the release of new magma but rather the fragmentation and ejection of pre-existing rock.
  • Phreatomagmatic Eruptions: These involve the direct and dynamic interaction between ascending magma and external water sources, leading to explosive events distinct from purely steam-driven phreatic eruptions.

Spectrum of Eruptive Strength

Within these broad categories, a spectrum of eruptive strengths exists. The least forceful include Hawaiian and submarine eruptions, followed by Strombolian, then Vulcanian and Surtseyan. More powerful events encompass Pelean and Plinian eruptions, with the most extreme being termed ultra-Plinian. Subglacial and phreatic eruptions, defined by their interaction mechanisms, can vary significantly in intensity. A critical metric for quantifying eruptive strength is the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), a logarithmic scale from 0 to 8 that correlates with eruptive types.

Eruptive Mechanisms

Gas-Driven Magmatic Events

Magmatic eruptions are fundamentally driven by the release of dissolved gases from magma as it undergoes decompression during its ascent. This process generates significant pressure, propelling the magma and associated volcanic material (ejecta) towards the surface. The intensity of these eruptions can range from relatively gentle lava fountains to colossal eruption columns that extend tens of kilometers into the atmosphere.

Steam-Powered Phreatic Blasts

Phreatic eruptions, in contrast, are powered by the rapid expansion of steam. This occurs when external water sources, such as groundwater or surface water, come into direct contact with hot rock or magma. The instantaneous superheating of this water leads to a violent steam explosion, which fragments and ejects pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit. Crucially, these eruptions do not involve the expulsion of new magma.

Magma-Water Interactions: Phreatomagmatic

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are characterized by the direct and vigorous interaction between ascending magma and external water. Unlike phreatic eruptions where only steam and old rock are ejected, phreatomagmatic events involve fresh magma reaching the surface and interacting with water. This interaction can lead to thermal contraction of the magma, causing it to fragment explosively. Some theories also suggest that fuel-coolant reactions, where magma fragments due to propagating stress waves, play a significant role in their explosive nature, leading to finer-grained eruptive products.

Explosive vs. Effusive

Volcanic activity can be broadly categorized into two styles based on the nature of material expulsion:

  • Explosive Eruptions: These are defined by gas-driven explosions that violently propel magma and tephra (fragmented rock) into the atmosphere. They are often associated with more viscous magmas that trap gases, leading to pressure buildup.
  • Effusive Eruptions: Characterized by the relatively calm outpouring of lava without significant explosive activity. These typically involve less viscous lavas that allow gases to escape more readily.

Impact & Scale

Measuring Eruptive Strength

Volcanic eruptions exhibit a vast range of strengths, from the relatively benign effusive Hawaiian eruptions, characterized by fluid lava flows and lava fountains, to the highly dangerous and violent explosive events of Plinian eruptions. A single volcano is not confined to one eruptive style; it can frequently display a variety of passive and explosive types, even within a single eruptive cycle. Furthermore, eruptions do not always originate vertically from a summit crater; lateral and fissure eruptions, often from rift zones, are common, particularly in Hawaiian-type volcanism.

As noted by volcanologist George P. L. Walker, distinguishing between various aspects is crucial when studying the products of explosive eruptions:

  1. Magnitude: The total volume of erupted material.
  2. Intensity: The rate at which material is emitted.
  3. Dispersive Power: The geographical extent of material dispersal.
  4. Violence: The significance of momentum in the eruption.
  5. Destructive Potential: The actual or potential extent of damage to life or property.

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a crucial scale, ranging from 0 to 8, used to quantify the strength of volcanic eruptions. Developed by the Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program, it functions similarly to the Richter scale for earthquakes, being logarithmic. Each increment in VEI represents a tenfold increase in eruptive magnitude. The vast majority of volcanic eruptions fall within VEI 0 to 2, indicating that truly massive events are rare but profoundly impactful.

Volcanic eruptions by VEI index
VEI Plume height Eruptive volume * Typical eruption type Frequency ** Example
0 <100 m (330 ft) 1,000 m3 (35,300 cu ft) Hawaiian Continuous Kīlauea
1 100–1,000 m (300–3,300 ft) 10,000 m3 (353,000 cu ft) Hawaiian/Strombolian Daily Stromboli
2 1–5 km (1–3 mi) 1,000,000 m3 (35,300,000 cu ft) † Strombolian/Vulcanian Fortnightly Galeras (1992)
3 3–15 km (2–9 mi) 10,000,000 m3 (353,000,000 cu ft) Vulcanian 3 months Nevado del Ruiz (1985)
4 10–25 km (6–16 mi) 100,000,000 m3 (0.024 cu mi) Vulcanian/Peléan 18 months Eyjafjallajökull (2010)
5 >25 km (16 mi) 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) Plinian 10–15 years Mount St. Helens (1980)
6 >25 km (16 mi) 10 km3 (2 cu mi) Plinian/Ultra-Plinian 50–100 years Mount Pinatubo (1991)
7 >25 km (16 mi) 100 km3 (20 cu mi) Ultra-Plinian 500–1000 years Tambora (1815)
8 >25 km (16 mi) 1,000 km3 (200 cu mi) Supervolcanic 50,000+ years Lake Toba (74 k.y.a.)
* This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within the category.
** Values are a rough estimate.
† There is a discontinuity between the 1st and 2nd VEI level; instead of increasing by a magnitude of 10, the value increases by a magnitude of 100 (from 10,000 to 1,000,000).

Magmatic Eruptions

Hawaiian

Named after the Hawaiian volcanoes like Mauna Loa, these are among the calmest volcanic events. They are characterized by the effusive eruption of highly fluid basaltic lavas with low gas content. This steady, gentle production of lava builds the characteristic broad forms of shield volcanoes. Eruptions often occur from fissure vents radiating from the summit, forming "curtains of fire" that later concentrate at a few vents. Central-vent eruptions can produce large, continuous or sporadic lava fountains reaching hundreds of meters. Rapidly cooling particles form cindery scoria, while slower cooling in dense clast clouds can create spatter cones. Hawaiian eruptions can be exceptionally long-lived, such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on Kilauea, which erupted continuously for over 35 years. Active lava lakes, self-sustaining pools of molten lava with a thin crust, are another distinctive feature.

Hawaiian basaltic flows are categorized into two main types:

  • Pahoehoe Lava: Characterized by a relatively smooth, often billowy or ropey surface. It can advance as a sheet, by the slow progression of "toes," or as a snaking column.
  • A'a Lava: Denser and more viscous than pahoehoe, moving slower with thicknesses of 2 to 20 meters. Its outer layers cool into a rubble-like mass, insulating the hot interior. A'a flows advance by the front steepening and breaking off under pressure, with the mass behind moving forward. Notably, pahoehoe can transform into A'a due to increasing viscosity or shear rate, but the reverse does not occur.

Unique volcanological products include:

  • Pele's Tears: Teardrop-shaped glassy fragments formed when small volcanic particles cool rapidly in the air.
  • Pele's Hair: Long, drawn-out strands of volcanic glass, formed under especially high winds.
  • Reticulite: An aerated basalt, known as the lowest density rock type on Earth.

While named after Hawaii, such eruptions are not exclusive to the region. Mount Etna in Italy, for instance, recorded the highest lava fountain in 2013, reaching a stable height of 2,500 meters.

Strombolian

Named after the continuously active Stromboli volcano, these eruptions are driven by the episodic bursting of gas bubbles within the magma. These bubbles coalesce into large "gas slugs" that rise through the lava column. Upon reaching the surface, the pressure difference causes them to burst with a loud "pop," ejecting magma into the air. Due to high gas pressures, activity is typically characterized by frequent, explosive eruptions accompanied by distinctive blasts, occurring as often as every few minutes.

True Strombolian eruptions involve short-lived, explosive ejections of intermediate viscosity basaltic lavas, often thrown high into the air, with columns reaching hundreds of meters. The primary product is scoria. Their relatively passive and non-damaging nature allows them to persist for millennia, making them one of the least hazardous eruptive types. They eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments that follow parabolic paths, accumulating to form cinder cones composed entirely of basaltic pyroclasts, often in well-ordered tephra rings.

Key distinctions from Hawaiian eruptions include their noisier nature, lack of sustained eruptive columns, absence of Pele's tears and hair, and fewer molten lava flows (though small rivulets may form).

Notable volcanoes exhibiting Strombolian activity:

  • Parícutin, Mexico: Erupted from a cornfield in 1943, providing the first opportunity for scientists to observe a volcano's complete life cycle.
  • Mount Etna, Italy: Has shown Strombolian activity in numerous recent eruptions (e.g., 1981, 1999, 2002–2003, 2009).
  • Mount Erebus, Antarctica: The world's southernmost active volcano, observed erupting since 1972 with frequent Strombolian activity.
  • Mount Batutara, Indonesia: Exhibited continuous Strombolian eruption since 2014.
  • Stromboli, Italy: The namesake volcano, active throughout historical time with essentially continuous Strombolian eruptions.

Vulcanian

Named after Vulcano, these eruptions are characterized by the explosive release of intermediate viscous magma. The magma's viscosity hinders gas escape, leading to a buildup of high gas pressure that eventually ruptures the cap holding the magma down. Unlike Strombolian eruptions, ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic due to higher magma viscosity and greater incorporation of crystalline material from the fractured cap. Vulcanian eruptions are more explosive, with columns typically reaching 5 to 10 kilometers high, and their deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather than basaltic.

Initial Vulcanian activity consists of short-lived explosions (minutes to hours) ejecting volcanic bombs and blocks. These eruptions erode the lava dome, leading to quieter, more continuous activity. Lava dome growth is thus an early indicator, and its collapse generates pyroclastic material flowing down the volcano's slopes.

Deposits near the vent include large volcanic blocks and bombs, with "bread-crust bombs" being common. These form when the exterior of ejected lava cools rapidly, while the interior continues to vesiculate and expand, cracking the surface. The bulk of Vulcanian deposits is fine-grained ash, moderately dispersed, indicating high fragmentation due to high gas content. Some Vulcanian eruptions are partially hydrovolcanic, resulting from interaction with meteoric water.

Volcanoes known for Vulcanian activity:

  • Sakurajima, Japan: Near-continuous Vulcanian activity since 1955.
  • Tavurvur, Papua New Guinea: One of several volcanoes in the Rabaul Caldera.
  • Irazú Volcano, Costa Rica: Exhibited Vulcanian activity during its 1963–1965 eruption.
  • Anak Krakatoa, Indonesia: Repeated Vulcanian activities since its emergence in 1930.

Vulcanian eruptions are estimated to account for at least half of all known Holocene eruptions.

Peléan

Named after Mount Pelée in Martinique, whose 1902 eruption was one of history's worst natural disasters, Peléan eruptions involve the explosive expulsion of large amounts of gas, dust, ash, and lava fragments from the central crater. These are driven by the collapse of rhyolite, dacite, and andesite lava domes, often creating substantial eruptive columns. A precursor is the growth of a "Peléan" or "lava spine" at the summit, which then collapses.

The collapsing material forms fast-moving pyroclastic flows (known as block-and-ash flows) that surge down the mountain at speeds often exceeding 150 km/h. These landslides make Peléan eruptions exceptionally dangerous, capable of devastating populated areas and causing significant loss of life. The 1902 Mount Pelée eruption, for example, killed over 30,000 people and destroyed St. Pierre, marking it as the worst volcanic event of the 20th century.

Peléan eruptions are primarily characterized by these incandescent pyroclastic flows. Their mechanics are similar to Vulcanian eruptions, but the volcano's structure in Peléan events can withstand greater pressure, leading to one large explosion rather than multiple smaller ones.

Volcanoes known for Peléan activity:

  • Mount Pelée, Martinique: The 1902 eruption devastated the island, leaving only three survivors.
  • Mayon Volcano, Philippines: Its most violent eruption in 1814 caused over 1200 deaths, with frequent pyroclastic flows.
  • Mount Lamington, Papua New Guinea: Its 1951 eruption, previously unrecognized as a volcano, killed over 3,000 people and serves as a benchmark for studying large Peléan events.
  • Mount Sinabung, Indonesia: Since 2013, it has frequently emitted pyroclastic flows with lava dome collapses.

Plinian

Named after Pliny the Younger, who chronicled the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius that buried Pompeii and Herculaneum, Plinian eruptions are characterized by massive, sustained eruptive columns. The process begins in the magma chamber where dissolved volatile gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the conduit. Once these bubbles constitute about 75% of the conduit's volume, they explode, forcing gases and magma upwards to form a towering column. Eruption velocity is amplified by gas content and the cracking of low-strength surface rocks.

These distinctive columns can reach 2 to 45 kilometers into the atmosphere. The lower, densest part is driven by internal gas expansion, while higher up, convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash propel it into the stratosphere. Powerful winds can then carry the plume far from the volcano.

Plinian eruptions are highly explosive and typically associated with volatile-rich dacitic to rhyolitic lavas, commonly occurring at stratovolcanoes. They can last from hours to days, with longer durations linked to more felsic volcanoes. While usually felsic, they can occur at basaltic volcanoes if the magma chamber differentiates with silicon dioxide-rich upper portions or if magma ascends rapidly.

They differ from Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions by forming sustained eruptive columns rather than discrete explosions. They are similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in producing sustained columns maintained by rising bubbles.

Regions affected by Plinian eruptions experience heavy pumice airfall, covering areas of 0.5 to 50 cubic kilometers with thick layers of ash. The most dangerous features are the pyroclastic flows generated by material collapse, which can descend mountainsides at extreme speeds (up to 700 km/h) and extend hundreds of kilometers. The ejection of hot material can also melt snow and ice, mixing with tephra to form lahars—rapid mudflows with the consistency of wet concrete.

Major Plinian eruptive events include:

  • AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius: The archetypal Plinian eruption, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum.
  • 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens: A VEI 5 Plinian eruption that dramatically reshaped the volcano's summit.
  • Lake Toba (74,000 years ago): An "Ultra-Plinian" eruption (VEI 8), releasing 2800 times the material of Mount St. Helens' 1980 event.
  • Hekla, Iceland: An example of basaltic Plinian volcanism, with its 1947–48 eruption.
  • Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (1991): Produced 5 km3 of dacitic magma, a 40 km high column, and released 17 megatons of sulfur dioxide.
  • Kelud, Indonesia (2014): Ejected 120 to 160 million cubic meters of volcanic ash, causing widespread economic disruption.

Phreatomagmatic Eruptions

Water-Magma Dynamics

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are characterized by the direct and often violent interactions between water and magma. Unlike purely magmatic eruptions driven by gas decompression, these events are influenced by the thermal contraction of magma upon contact with water. This significant temperature differential leads to explosive water-lava interactions. The resulting eruptive products are typically more regular in shape and finer-grained than those from purely magmatic eruptions, a consequence of the distinct fragmentation mechanisms at play.

There is ongoing scientific discussion regarding the precise nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions. Some researchers propose that fuel-coolant reactions may be more critical to their explosive character than thermal contraction alone. In this model, the interaction fragments volcanic material by propagating stress waves, which widen cracks and increase the magma's surface area. This ultimately leads to rapid cooling and explosive, contraction-driven eruptions.

Surtseyan

Surtseyan eruptions are a type of hydrovolcanic eruption occurring in shallow water, named after the island of Surtsey, which formed off Iceland in 1963. These are the "wet" counterparts to ground-based Strombolian eruptions but are significantly more explosive due to the rapid flashing of water into steam when heated by lava. This violent expansion fragments the magma into fine-grained ash. Surtseyan eruptions are common in shallow-water oceanic islands but can also occur on land if rising magma interacts with shallow aquifers. Their products are generally oxidized palagonite basalts, and the eruptions are typically continuous or rhythmic.

A hallmark of Surtseyan eruptions is the formation of a pyroclastic surge (or base surge)—a ground-hugging, radially expanding cloud that accompanies the eruption column. These surges result from the gravitational collapse of a dense, vaporous eruptive column, creating a wedge-shaped cloud. Their lateral movement leaves behind dune-shaped rock depositions, sometimes disrupted by "bomb sags" from ballistic rock fragments. Accretionary lapilli, wet, spherical ash accumulations, are another common indicator of surges.

Over time, Surtseyan eruptions often form maars (broad, low-relief volcanic craters) and tuff rings (circular structures built from rapidly quenched lava), typically associated with single-vent eruptions. Eruptions along fracture zones or rift zones can be more violent, as seen in the 1886 Mount Tarawera eruption. Littoral cones, another hydrovolcanic feature, are formed by explosive deposition of basaltic tephra when lava superheats water in cracks, causing steam explosions.

Volcanoes known for Surtseyan activity:

  • Surtsey, Iceland: Its formation in 1963 demonstrated the transition from highly explosive hydrovolcanic activity to more Strombolian behavior as the island grew above sea level.
  • Ukinrek maars, Alaska (1977) and Capelinhos, Azores (1957): Examples of above-water Surtseyan activity.
  • Mount Tarawera, New Zealand (1886): Erupted along a rift zone, killing 150 people.
  • Ferdinandea, Mediterranean Sea (1831): A seamount that briefly breached sea level, causing a sovereignty dispute, but its tuff cones were not strong enough to resist erosion.
  • Hunga Tonga, Tonga (2009): An underwater volcano that exhibited Surtseyan activity upon breaching sea level.

Submarine

Submarine eruptions occur beneath the ocean's surface, accounting for an estimated 75% of the total volcanic eruptive volume, primarily along mid-ocean ridges. Details of deep-sea eruptions remained largely unknown until advancements in the 1990s, particularly hydrophone technology, allowed for their observation. These eruptions can lead to the formation of seamounts, which may eventually rise above sea level to create volcanic islands.

Submarine volcanism is driven by diverse processes:

  • Plate Boundaries and Mid-Ocean Ridges: Caused by decompression melting of mantle rock rising to the crustal surface. These primarily produce basaltic volcanics.
  • Subduction Zones: Driven by subducting plates that introduce volatiles, lowering the melting point of the rising plate. These flows are typically calc-alkaline, more explosive, and viscous.

Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges vary, with higher rates correlating to increased volcanism. Hydrophone technology, initially for submarine detection, has been instrumental in detecting T-waves (acoustic waves) from submarine earthquakes associated with these eruptions, revealing events every 2-3 years in the North Pacific.

The most common underwater flow is pillow lava, characterized by its rounded shape. Less common are glassy, marginal sheet flows, indicating larger eruptions. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are prevalent in shallow-water environments. As tectonic plates carry volcanoes away from their eruptive sources, activity wanes, and erosion shapes the seamount, with final eruption stages often producing alkalic flows. While there are approximately 100,000 deepwater volcanoes globally, most are no longer active.

Exemplary seamounts include Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Loihi), Bowie Seamount, Davidson Seamount, and Axial Seamount.

Subglacial

Subglacial eruptions involve the interaction between lava and ice, typically occurring beneath glaciers in high-latitude and high-altitude regions. These glaciovolcanic events are known to generate dangerous jökulhlaups (glacial outburst floods) and lahars (volcanic mudflows) due to the significant meltwater produced. Even non-erupting subglacial volcanoes can release heat into the overlying ice, contributing to meltwater formation.

Glaciovolcanism is a relatively nascent field of study. Early observations described unique flat-topped, steep-sided volcanoes in Iceland, known as tuyas, which were hypothesized to form under ice. William Henry Mathews' 1947 paper, describing the Tuya Butte field in British Columbia, provided the first English-language account of these structures. The eruptive process begins with subglacial volcanic growth, initially resembling deep-sea eruptions by forming pillow lava at the base. Contact with cold ice shatters some lava into hyaloclastite, a glassy breccia.

As the ice melts, a lake forms, leading to more explosive Surtseyan activity that builds hyaloclastite-rich flanks. Continued volcanism eventually boils off the lake, and lava flows become more effusive, thickening as they cool slowly, often forming columnar jointing. Well-preserved tuyas, like Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland, display all these stages.

Glaciovolcanic products, including tuyas, are crucial indicators of past ice distribution, making them important climatic markers. Concerns exist that global glacial retreat could destabilize these ice-embedded structures, leading to mass landslides. Evidence of volcano-ice interactions is found in Iceland, British Columbia, Hawaii, Alaska, the Cascade Range, South America, and even on Mars, suggesting a potential role in deglaciation.

Volcanoes known for subglacial activity:

  • Mauna Kea, Hawaii: Evidence of past subglacial activity from 10,000 years ago, when its summit was ice-covered.
  • Antarctica: A 2008 British Antarctic Survey report identified a major subglacial eruption 2,200 years ago under the ice sheet near Pine Island Glacier, the largest in Antarctica in 10,000 years.
  • Vatnajökull, Iceland: An example of an eruption under 762 meters of ice in 1996.
  • Mars: Scientists suggest potential subglacial volcanoes on Mars, with microbial communities possibly thriving in deep geothermal groundwater, similar to conditions in Iceland.

Phreatic Eruptions

Steam-Blast Dynamics

Phreatic eruptions, also known as steam-blast eruptions, are driven solely by the explosive expansion of steam. These events occur when cold ground or surface water comes into contact with hot rock or magma, causing the water to superheat and flash into steam. This rapid phase change generates immense pressure, fracturing the surrounding rock and ejecting a mixture of steam, water, ash, volcanic bombs, and blocks. The defining characteristic of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted.

Precursors & Hazards

Phreatic activity does not always culminate in an eruption; if the rock strata are strong enough to withstand the explosive force, an outright eruption may not occur, though the rock will likely develop cracks, weakening it for future events. Often serving as a precursor to more significant volcanic activity, phreatic eruptions are generally weak, though exceptions exist. They can be triggered by earthquake activity, another volcanic precursor, and may propagate along dike lines.

Associated hazards include:

  • Base Surges: Ground-hugging clouds of steam and debris.
  • Lahars: Fast-moving volcanic mudflows.
  • Avalanches: Collapsing rock and debris.
  • Volcanic Block "Rain": Falling fragments of rock.
  • Toxic Gas Release: Deadly gases capable of suffocating those in the eruption's vicinity.

Global Examples

Volcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include:

  • Mount St. Helens, USA: Displayed phreatic activity prior to its catastrophic Plinian eruption in 1980.
  • Taal Volcano, Philippines: Notable phreatic eruptions in 1965 and 2020.
  • La Soufrière of Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles: Exhibited phreatic activity during 1975–1976.
  • Soufriére Hills volcano, Montserrat, West Indies: Active with phreatic events from 1995–2012.
  • Poás Volcano, Costa Rica: Known for frequent geyser-like phreatic eruptions from its crater lake.
  • Mount Bulusan, Philippines: Well-known for its sudden phreatic eruptions.
  • Mount Ontake, Japan: All historical eruptions, including the deadly 2014 event, have been phreatic.
  • Mount Kerinci, Indonesia: Produces almost annual phreatic eruptions.

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References

References

  1.  Kyle, P. R. (Ed.), Volcanological and Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus, Antarctica, Antarctic Research Series, American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 1994.
A full list of references for this article are available at the Volcanic eruption Wikipedia page

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