When was the War Refugee Board established, and by whom?

The War Refugee Board was established in January 1944 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Its creation marked a significant moment in American history, being the only time the U.S. government founded a non-military agency specifically to save civilian lives from a wartime enemy.

According to historian Rebecca Erbelding, what is unique about the War Refugee Board in American history?

Historian Rebecca Erbelding highlights that the War Refugee Board was unique because it was the only instance in American history where the U.S. government established a non-military government agency specifically to save the lives of civilians being murdered by a wartime enemy. This underscores its distinct humanitarian mission.

What significant pressure led President Roosevelt to establish the War Refugee Board?

President Roosevelt established the War Refugee Board due to increasing and persistent publicity and pressure from various groups, notably the Bergson Group led by Hillel Kook (Peter Bergson). Additional pressure came from Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. and his team, who emphasized the urgency of acting against the Nazi plan to exterminate Jews and other persecuted minorities in Europe.

Who led the campaign that pressured the Roosevelt administration to help abandoned Jews in Europe?

The campaign to pressure the Roosevelt administration to help abandoned Jews in Europe was led by the Bergson Group, headed by Hillel Kook, who also used the name Peter Bergson. This group garnered significant support from various prominent figures and organizations.

What specific incident involving the State Department prompted Treasury Department lawyers to act?

Treasury Department lawyers, including John Pehle, Ansel Luxford, and Josiah E. DuBois Jr., were prompted to act due to frustration over State Department delays in granting a license for relief funds. These funds were intended to help Jews escape Romania and France, and the State Department's obstruction, which took eight months, spurred the lawyers to investigate.

Who was Josiah E. DuBois Jr., and what did he discover about the State Department?

Josiah E. DuBois Jr. was a staff lawyer in the Treasury Department. During an investigation into delays for relief funds, he discovered that the State Department had not only obstructed licenses for aid but had also actively suppressed information about Nazi atrocities, specifically the murder of Jews, from reaching the United States.

What action did President Roosevelt take on January 16, 1944, after receiving a briefing?

After receiving an oral briefing on the Treasury Department's memorandum regarding the State Department's actions, President Roosevelt agreed to address the issues by creating the War Refugee Board. He issued Executive Order 9417 on January 22, 1944, to establish the agency.

What was the composition of the War Refugee Board as initially established by President Roosevelt?

The War Refugee Board was composed of three cabinet members: Secretary of State Cordell Hull, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., and Secretary of War Henry Stimson. Roosevelt made this decision after a meeting with Morgenthau, Paul, and Pehle.

What was the role of the Bergson Group and the Emergency Committee to Save the Jews of Europe in the WRB's creation?

The Bergson Group, led by Hillel Kook (Peter Bergson), and the Emergency Committee to Save the Jews of Europe played a crucial role by applying relentless, long-term pressure and conducting information campaigns. Their efforts, alongside congressional resolutions, contributed significantly to President Roosevelt's decision to establish the War Refugee Board.

Who was John W. Pehle, and what position did he hold within the WRB?

John W. Pehle was the assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury and was appointed as the executive director of the War Refugee Board. He was directly responsible for the board's operations and played a key role in its formation and early activities.

Who succeeded John W. Pehle as the executive director of the War Refugee Board?

Brigadier General William O'Dwyer later succeeded John W. Pehle as the executive director of the War Refugee Board. He held this position until the board was dissolved at the end of World War II.

In which countries did the War Refugee Board establish representatives?

The War Refugee Board appointed representatives in several key countries to facilitate its operations. These included Turkey, Switzerland, Sweden, Portugal, Great Britain, Italy, and North Africa.

What were the main categories of plans and programs developed by the WRB?

The WRB developed and implemented plans and programs focused on rescuing, transporting, and relieving victims of enemy oppression. Additionally, it worked on establishing havens of temporary refuge for these victims.

How did neutral countries contribute to the WRB's mission?

Neutral countries such as Switzerland, Sweden, and Turkey were vital to the WRB's mission, serving as crucial bases of operation for its rescue and relief programs. These nations provided essential logistical and operational support.

How did the WRB facilitate the financing of rescue operations?

The WRB facilitated the financing of rescue operations by implementing a Treasury Department licensing policy. This policy allowed established private agencies to transfer funds from the United States to their representatives in neutral countries, enabling communication with and financial support for rescue efforts within enemy territory under controlled conditions.

What was the approximate amount of private funds made available through the WRB's licensing policy?

Approximately $15 million in private funds was made available through the War Refugee Board's licensing policy. This financial support was crucial for financing rescue operations and providing aid to persecuted peoples under Nazi control.

What role did the WRB play concerning food shipments to concentration camps?

The War Refugee Board obtained blockade clearances for food shipments from private relief agencies. These shipments were intended for distribution by the International Red Cross to detainees in Nazi concentration camps, providing essential sustenance.

What was the WRB's own initiative to provide food to detainees in concentration camps?

In addition to facilitating private food shipments, the War Refugee Board also initiated its own food parcel program. This program was financed using emergency funds allocated to the President, supplementing the efforts of private agencies.

Where were refugee camps prepared and safe havens arranged by the WRB?

Through its efforts, the War Refugee Board arranged for the preparation of refugee camps in North Africa. It also secured safe havens for refugees in countries like Palestine, Switzerland, and Sweden.

How many Jewish refugees did the WRB bring to the Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter in Oswego, New York, and when?

In August 1944, the War Refugee Board brought 982 Jewish refugees, who were in Italy, to the Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter located in Oswego, New York. These refugees were admitted outside the standard immigration quota laws.

What was the intended status and eventual fate of the refugees admitted to Fort Ontario?

The refugees admitted to Fort Ontario were intended to be repatriated to their home countries after the war concluded successfully. They were admitted outside the regular immigration quota laws and were not granted permanent status.

How did the WRB utilize the Fort Ontario example?

The War Refugee Board used the admission of refugees to Fort Ontario as an example to encourage and influence other countries to also open their borders and accept additional refugees. This aimed to create a broader international effort.

What significant public action did the WRB lobby President Roosevelt to take?

The War Refugee Board actively lobbied President Roosevelt to publicly condemn the mass murder of Jews by the Nazis. Roosevelt eventually responded to this pressure by issuing a public condemnation on March 24, 1944.

What was George Mantello's role in publicizing information about Nazi atrocities?

George Mantello, serving as the First Secretary of El Salvador in Switzerland, played a crucial role by publicizing the summary of the Auschwitz Protocol after receiving it with some delay. This action, starting around June 24, 1944, led to widespread grassroots protests, Sunday masses, and extensive media coverage of the barbarism against Europe's Jews.

What impact did Mantello's publicity have in Switzerland and internationally?

Mantello's publicity regarding the Auschwitz Protocol generated significant public outcry in Switzerland, leading to large-scale grassroots protests and numerous newspaper articles detailing the atrocities against European Jews. This attention also attracted international notice to the ongoing deportations of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz.

How might the WRB have influenced Hungary's Regent Miklos Horthy?

The War Refugee Board may have contributed to influencing Hungary's Regent Miklos Horthy through its efforts to draw international attention to the situation. This pressure might have played a role in the cessation of most deportations of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz.

What significant event in Hungary may have been influenced by the WRB's pressure?

The cessation of most deportations of Jews from Hungary to Auschwitz on July 6, 1944, is an event that the WRB's pressure on Regent Miklos Horthy may have contributed to. This action potentially saved many of Hungary's Jewish population.

Who was Raoul Wallenberg, and what was his connection to the WRB?

Raoul Wallenberg was a Swedish noble who became a diplomat involved in rescue missions. The War Refugee Board convinced him to go to Budapest to protect Jews, and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, funded through the WRB, supported his rescue work there.

How successful was Raoul Wallenberg's work in Hungary, and how many Jews might he have protected?

Raoul Wallenberg's work in Hungary was considered one of the most successful and important rescue efforts undertaken by the War Refugee Board. It is estimated that he may have protected tens of thousands of Jews.

Why is it difficult to determine the exact number of people rescued by the War Refugee Board?

It is challenging to ascertain the precise number of individuals rescued by the War Refugee Board because much of its work was conducted behind enemy lines. This often involved intangible rescue activities, such as psychological warfare and covert operations, which are hard to quantify.

What are the different estimates for the number of people saved by the WRB?

According to historian David Wyman, the War Refugee Board is credited with saving as many as 200,000 people. The WRB staff themselves estimated that they saved tens of thousands of lives.

How did WRB director John Pehle reflect on the board's work later in life?

Near the end of his life, WRB director John Pehle described the board's work as "too little, too late" when contrasted with the immense scale of the Holocaust. This reflection highlights the overwhelming nature of the genocide despite the board's efforts.

When was the War Refugee Board officially abolished?

The War Refugee Board was officially abolished on September 15, 1945. Its dissolution followed the end of the war in Europe, as its mission was completed.

What Executive Order led to the abolition of the War Refugee Board?

Executive Order No. 9614 led to the abolition of the War Refugee Board. This order formally dissolved the agency after the conclusion of its wartime operations.

What topic is mentioned in the "See also" section of the article?

The "See also" section of the article mentions the "Auschwitz bombing debate." This refers to discussions and historical analysis concerning the potential military action of bombing the Auschwitz concentration camp.

What was the primary motivation behind the campaign led by the Bergson Group?

The primary motivation behind the campaign led by the Bergson Group was to exert pressure on the Roosevelt administration to take action and help the abandoned Jews of Europe. They sought to raise awareness and compel the government to intervene against Nazi atrocities.

How did the State Department officials allegedly suppress information about the Holocaust?

According to the findings investigated by Treasury staff, State Department officials allegedly sent orders to foreign missions not to forward information about Nazi atrocities, specifically the murder of Jews, from reaching Washington. This action was part of the broader obstruction of rescue efforts.

What was the significance of the Treasury Department's "Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews"?

This report was significant because it provided concrete evidence and accusations against the State Department for its inaction and obstruction regarding the rescue of Jews. It served as a critical document that motivated Secretary Morgenthau to bring the issue directly to President Roosevelt.

Who were the key Treasury Department lawyers involved in uncovering the State Department's obstruction?

The key Treasury Department lawyers involved in uncovering the State Department's obstruction were John Pehle, Ansel Luxford, and Josiah E. DuBois Jr. Their diligence and investigation were instrumental in bringing the matter to light.

What was the role of Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. in the creation of the WRB?

Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. was a crucial advocate for the creation of the War Refugee Board. He received the critical report from his staff, met with President Roosevelt to present the findings, and supported the urgent need for action to save Jewish lives.

What were the stated goals of the War Refugee Board's activities?

The stated goals of the War Refugee Board's activities were to rescue, transport, and relieve victims of enemy oppression, and to establish temporary refuge havens for these individuals. These objectives guided the board's operational plans and programs.

How did the WRB work with private U.S. relief agencies?

The WRB collaborated closely with private U.S. relief agencies in developing, financing, and executing rescue plans and projects. This partnership allowed for the effective channeling of funds and resources to aid those in need.

What was the purpose of the WRB's blockade clearances for food shipments?

The purpose of the WRB's blockade clearances for food shipments was to allow private relief agencies to send food to detainees in Nazi concentration camps. These shipments were distributed by the International Red Cross, providing vital sustenance to prisoners.

What was the nature of the WRB's involvement with the Vatican?

The article suggests that the Vatican may have rendered some assistance, particularly towards the end of the war. It also mentions that some Papal representatives, like Angelo Rotta in Budapest and Phillippe Bernardini in Switzerland, had previously helped protect Jews and served as channels of communication.

What was the significance of the WRB's lobbying for Roosevelt to publicly condemn Nazi atrocities?

The WRB's lobbying for President Roosevelt to publicly condemn the mass murder of Jews by the Nazis was significant because it represented a high-level official denouncement of the atrocities. This public statement by the U.S. President brought international attention and moral weight to the issue.

What was the "Auschwitz Protocol," and how did George Mantello's actions relate to it?

The "Auschwitz Protocol" was a document detailing the systematic extermination of Jews at the Auschwitz concentration camp. George Mantello, as El Salvador's First Secretary in Switzerland, received this protocol and promptly publicized its summary, which initiated significant public awareness and action.

What was the opposition to Hillel Kook and his rescue activist group?

Opposition to Hillel Kook and his rescue activist group came from notable figures like Jewish Congressman Sol Bloom, who headed the Foreign Relations Committee. Progressive Jewish organizations, led by Stephen Wise of the World Jewish Congress, also opposed the initiative, advocating for a different approach to saving European Jews.

What was the policy advocated by Stephen Wise and the World Jewish Congress regarding the rescue of European Jews?

The policy advocated by Stephen Wise and the World Jewish Congress, as voiced at Congressional hearings, was to save the Jews of Europe by opening the gates of Palestine. This approach was presented in contrast to the direct rescue efforts championed by groups like Hillel Kook's.

War Refugee Board Wiki: The War Refugee Board: A Beacon of Hope in the Holocaust

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Overview

Establishment and Mandate

The War Refugee Board (WRB) was established in January 1944 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It was a unique U.S. executive agency tasked with aiding civilian victims of the Axis powers during World War II. Historians note it as the sole instance in American history where the government created a non-military agency specifically to rescue civilians targeted by a wartime adversary.

A Response to Crisis

The Board's creation was a direct response to mounting public and political pressure, notably from the Bergson Group led by Hillel Kook, and influential figures like Eleanor Roosevelt and Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. This pressure aimed to compel the Roosevelt administration to act decisively regarding the plight of Jews in Europe, who faced systematic extermination by the Nazis.

Historical Significance

The WRB is credited with rescuing tens of thousands of individuals, primarily Jews, from Nazi-occupied territories. Its efforts, often carried out through diplomatic channels and covert operations, represent a significant, albeit belated, American governmental intervention during the Holocaust. The Board's existence underscored the moral imperative to act against genocide, even amidst global conflict.

Genesis: The Path to Creation

Mounting Pressure and Delays

By late 1943, persistent public outcry and advocacy, particularly from the Bergson Group and their allies in Congress, highlighted the urgent need for U.S. action. Simultaneously, Treasury Department lawyers, including John Pehle and Josiah E. DuBois Jr., discovered systematic obstruction by certain U.S. State Department officials. These officials were delaying crucial relief funds destined for Jewish refugees and actively suppressing information about Nazi atrocities, including the ongoing Holocaust.

The Treasury Report

In response to these findings, Treasury staff, spearheaded by Josiah DuBois Jr., drafted a critical memorandum titled "Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews." This report detailed the State Department's "willful failure to act" and attempts to prevent rescue efforts. The memorandum was presented to Secretary Morgenthau, who, along with Randolph Paul and John Pehle, briefed President Roosevelt on January 16, 1944.

Executive Order 9417

Following the briefing, President Roosevelt acted decisively. On January 22, 1944, he signed Executive Order 9417, officially establishing the War Refugee Board. This order created a three-cabinet-member body (Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War) to coordinate and implement U.S. efforts to rescue civilian victims of the enemy. The Board was directly responsible to the President.

Structure and Leadership

Executive Leadership

John W. Pehle, Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, was appointed as the Board's first executive director. He managed the day-to-day operations, drawing staff primarily from the Treasury Department. Although officially limited to thirty employees, the WRB's effective staff grew to seventy by the summer of 1944 through "detailed" assignments. Brigadier General William O'Dwyer later succeeded Pehle before the Board's dissolution.

Field Operations

The War Refugee Board established crucial operational bases and appointed representatives in key neutral and accessible countries. These included Turkey, Switzerland, Sweden, Portugal, Great Britain, Italy, and North Africa. These representatives acted as vital conduits for rescue, relief, and communication efforts within enemy-controlled territories.

Operational Activities

Collaboration and Coordination

The WRB actively collaborated with foreign governments and international organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). They also worked closely with private U.S. relief agencies, facilitating the transfer of approximately $15 million in private funds for rescue operations under strict controls.

Relief and Safe Havens

Key functions included rescuing and transporting victims, establishing temporary havens, and facilitating relief deliveries. The Board secured blockade clearances for food shipments to concentration camps and initiated its own food parcel program. Safe havens were arranged in Palestine, Switzerland, and Sweden. In August 1944, the WRB facilitated the arrival of 982 Jewish refugees at the Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter in Oswego, New York, admitting them outside standard immigration quotas.

Advocacy and Influence

The WRB lobbied President Roosevelt to publicly condemn Nazi atrocities, which he did on March 24, 1944. The Board also influenced events in Hungary; publicizing the Auschwitz Protocol via George Mantello in Switzerland generated significant international attention and protests, potentially contributing to Hungary's cessation of major deportations in July 1944. The WRB also funded the critical rescue work of diplomat Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest, who is credited with saving tens of thousands of lives.

Impact and Dissolution

Lives Saved

Estimating the precise number of lives saved by the War Refugee Board is challenging due to the clandestine nature of many operations. Historians suggest the WRB's efforts directly or indirectly saved tens of thousands, possibly up to 200,000 individuals. Despite these significant achievements, former WRB director John Pehle later reflected that the Board's actions were "too little, too late" in the context of the Holocaust's vast scale.

Conclusion of Operations

With the conclusion of World War II in Europe, the War Refugee Board's mission was fulfilled. As stipulated by Executive Order No. 9614, the agency was formally abolished on September 15, 1945. Its legacy remains a critical chapter in understanding the complexities of wartime humanitarian efforts and governmental responses to genocide.

References

Source Citations

^ ^a ^b Erbelding, Rebecca (2018). Rescue Board: The Untold Story of America's Efforts to Save the Jews of Europe. New York: Doubleday. p. 273. ISBN 978-0385542517.
^ ^a ^b "Franklin D. Roosevelt: Executive Order 9417 Establishing the War Refugee Board". The American Presidency Project. January 22, 1944. Retrieved August 25, 2009.
^ "Papers of the War Refugee Board" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-11-12.
^ Text of Statement on Atrocities
^ Lévai, Jenő. Zsidósors Európában, Budapest, 1948 (Hungarian)
^ Kranzler, David (2000). The Man Who Stopped the Trains to Auschwitz: George Mantello, El Salvador and Switzerland's Finest Hour. Syracuse University Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0815628730.
^ 10 Federal Register 11789, September 15, 1945

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References

Text of Statement on Atrocities

A full list of references for this article are available at the War Refugee Board Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This page has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. The content is derived from publicly available data and aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the War Refugee Board's historical significance.

Historical Contextualization: While striving for accuracy, this AI-generated content should be critically evaluated within its historical context. The complexities of World War II and the Holocaust necessitate careful study from multiple scholarly sources.

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The War Refugee Board

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview ℹ️

🏛️ Establishment and Mandate

🕊️ A Response to Crisis

📜 Historical Significance

Genesis: The Path to Creation ➡️

⏳ Mounting Pressure and Delays

📝 The Treasury Report

✅ Executive Order 9417

Structure and Leadership 👥

👨‍💼 Executive Leadership

🌍 Field Operations

Operational Activities 🛠️

🤝 Collaboration and Coordination

📦 Relief and Safe Havens

📣 Advocacy and Influence

Impact and Dissolution 📈

🔢 Lives Saved

🔚 Conclusion of Operations

References 📚

🔗 Source Citations

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

Establishment and Mandate

A Response to Crisis

Historical Significance

Genesis: The Path to Creation

Mounting Pressure and Delays

The Treasury Report

Executive Order 9417

Structure and Leadership

Executive Leadership

Field Operations

Operational Activities

Collaboration and Coordination

Relief and Safe Havens

Advocacy and Influence

Impact and Dissolution

Lives Saved

Conclusion of Operations

References

Source Citations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice