What is zooplankton, and what is the origin of its name?

Zooplankton refers to the heterotrophic component of the planktonic community, meaning they must consume other organisms to survive. The name originates from the Ancient Greek words "zōon" (animal) and "planktos" (wanderer or drifter), reflecting their animalistic nature and their inability to swim effectively against currents, causing them to drift.

How does zooplankton differ from phytoplankton in terms of nutrition and energy acquisition?

Phytoplankton are the autotrophic (self-feeding) component of plankton, capable of producing their own food through photosynthesis using sunlight. In contrast, zooplankton are heterotrophic (other-feeding), meaning they cannot produce their own food and must consume other organisms, typically phytoplankton or other zooplankton, to obtain energy and nutrients.

While plankton drift with currents, do all zooplankton lack locomotion, and what is the purpose of their movement?

Although zooplankton are primarily transported by water currents, many possess the ability to move independently. This locomotion is utilized for various purposes, such as avoiding predators, as seen in diel vertical migration, or to increase their chances of encountering prey.

What factors influence the distribution of zooplankton species in the ocean, and why do they form 'patches'?

Zooplankton distribution is influenced by a combination of physical and biological factors. Physical factors include salinity and temperature gradients, as well as water mixing processes like upwelling and downwelling, which affect nutrient availability and thus phytoplankton production. Biological factors such as breeding patterns, predation, and the concentration of phytoplankton also contribute to the formation of 'patches' of zooplankton species throughout the ocean.

What fundamental roles do zooplankton play in aquatic food webs and biogeochemical cycles?

Zooplankton are crucial links in aquatic food webs, serving as a food source for organisms at higher trophic levels, including fish. They also play a significant role in biogeochemistry by acting as a conduit for packaging organic material within the biological pump, which transports carbon to the deep ocean, and by recycling nutrients that fuel primary production.

How can zooplankton be involved in the biomagnification of pollutants like mercury?

Zooplankton can act as a link in the biomagnification of pollutants. As they consume smaller organisms that may contain pollutants, these substances can become concentrated in the zooplankton's tissues. This concentration can then be passed up the food chain to larger predators, leading to biomagnification.

Why is body size considered a 'master trait' for plankton, and what ecological functions does it influence?

Body size is considered a 'master trait' for plankton because it is a shared morphological characteristic that influences fundamental ecological functions. It significantly impacts an organism's growth rate, reproductive success, feeding strategies, susceptibility to predation (mortality), and its role within the food web and the efficiency of processes like the biological carbon pump.

What is the temperature-size rule (TSR) observed in ectotherms, and what factors complicate its interpretation in the ocean?

The temperature-size rule (TSR) is an observation that ectotherms (organisms whose body temperature depends on the external environment) tend to grow larger in colder environments and smaller in warmer ones. In the ocean, this pattern can be complicated by interactions with other factors like oxygen availability, which is often correlated with temperature but can independently influence body size responses.

What are the different size classifications for zooplankton mentioned in the text?

Zooplankton are classified into several size categories: picozooplankton (less than 2 micrometers), nanozooplankton (2-20 micrometers), microzooplankton (20-200 micrometers), and mesozooplankton (0.2-20 millimeters).

What is the primary ecological role of microzooplankton in marine ecosystems, and how does their consumption compare to that of mesozooplankton?

Microzooplankton are significant grazers of marine phytoplankton, consuming a substantial portion of the daily primary production (estimated at 59-75%). This consumption rate is generally higher than that of mesozooplankton, although macrozooplankton can sometimes have greater consumption in specific environments like eutrophic ecosystems.

Why are microzooplankton considered understudied, and what is the dilution technique used for?

Microzooplankton remain understudied because routine oceanographic observations often do not monitor their biomass or grazing rates effectively. The dilution technique is a specific method developed to measure the herbivory rate of microzooplankton, helping to overcome this knowledge gap.

Why are mesozooplankton considered useful indicators for studying marine ecosystems' responses to climate change?

Mesozooplankton are considered useful indicators because their life cycles are typically less than a year long. This means their abundance and species composition can respond relatively quickly to climate changes on a year-to-year basis, making them sensitive indicators of ecosystem shifts.

What defines protozooplankton, and what are some key examples found in marine environments?

Protozooplankton are planktonic protozoans, which are single-celled protists. Key examples found in marine environments include zooflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians, and certain types of dinoflagellates.

Historically, how were protozoa classified, and why is this classification no longer considered valid?

Historically, protozoa were grouped with animals because they often exhibited animal-like behaviors such as motility and predation, and they lacked cell walls, unlike plants and algae. However, modern biological understanding, particularly through genetic and cellular analysis, shows they are a diverse group of protists, not a unified animal lineage, making the traditional classification invalid.

What are radiolarians, what are their elaborate shells typically made of, and why are these shells significant after the organism's death?

Radiolarians are unicellular predatory protists known for their intricate, often spherical shells, which are usually composed of silica. When radiolarians die, their silica shells can sink to the ocean floor and become preserved as microfossils, providing valuable information about past oceanic conditions.

What are foraminiferans, what are their shells (tests) usually made of, and why are they important for studying past environments?

Foraminiferans, or 'forams', are single-celled predatory protists that create chambered shells, often called tests, typically made of calcite, though sometimes of agglutinated sediment or chiton. Their well-established fossil records are crucial for scientists to infer past oceanic conditions and climates.

What are the two main types of amoeba mentioned in the context of zooplankton?

The text mentions two main types of amoeba in the context of zooplankton: testate amoebas, which possess a shell or test, and naked amoebas, which lack such a protective covering.

What are dinoflagellates, and what are some of their notable characteristics, including their predatory behavior and armor?

Dinoflagellates are a phylum of single-celled flagellates, many of which are predatory and thus part of the zooplankton. They are characterized by two whip-like flagella used for movement and are often protected by a red-brown armor made of cellulose. Some species are known to cause toxic red tides.

What distinguishes mixoplankton from other plankton, and how common are mixotrophs among microscopic plankton?

Mixoplankton are planktonic organisms that are mixotrophic, meaning they can obtain energy and carbon from multiple sources, combining processes like photosynthesis with predation. It is estimated that mixotrophs constitute more than half of all microscopic plankton in the oceans.

What are the different ways eukaryotic mixotrophs can acquire energy and carbon?

Eukaryotic mixotrophs can acquire energy and carbon through several strategies: possessing their own chloroplasts for photosynthesis, hosting algal endosymbionts, or obtaining chloroplasts through kleptoplasty (stealing chloroplasts from ingested algae) or by enslaving entire phototrophic cells.

What percentage of microzooplankton biomass is estimated to be mixotrophic?

Recent studies suggest that a significant portion of microzooplankton exhibits mixotrophic behavior. Estimates indicate that 30-45% of ciliate abundance and up to 65% of the biomass of amoeboid, foram, and radiolarian microzooplankton are mixotrophic.

Describe the typical characteristics of copepods, including their size, body structure, and common features.

Copepods are typically small crustaceans, usually 1-2 mm long, with a teardrop-shaped body divided into a head, thorax, and abdomen. They possess two pairs of antennae, often long and prominent, and a tough exoskeleton. Many have a single red eye located in the center of their transparent head.

What is the significance of copepods within the zooplankton community?

Copepods are significant within the zooplankton community as they are typically among the most dominant members in terms of abundance. Their ecological role is substantial due to their high numbers and their position as primary consumers and prey for other organisms.

What constitutes ichthyoplankton, and why are they considered planktonic?

Ichthyoplankton refers to the eggs and larvae of fish. They are considered planktonic because fish eggs cannot swim at all, and early-stage larvae swim poorly, meaning they drift with ocean currents rather than actively controlling their position. As they grow into juvenile fish, they develop stronger swimming abilities and cease to be planktonic.

How has the perceived ecological role of gelatinous zooplankton, such as jellyfish, evolved in scientific understanding?

Traditionally, gelatinous zooplankton like jellyfish were viewed as having low nutritional value and being minor players in the marine food web. However, recent research challenges this perspective, indicating that they are diverse, often bloom in large numbers, and form substantial components of the diets of various predators, playing integral roles in deep pelagic food webs.

What types of predators are known to consume gelatinous zooplankton, and what challenges exist in studying this interaction?

Predators of gelatinous zooplankton include ocean sunfish, leatherback sea turtles, tuna, spearfish, swordfish, various birds, octopus, sea cucumbers, crabs, and amphipods. Studying these interactions is challenging because gelatinous zooplankton are fragile, turn to mush when eaten, digest rapidly, and are difficult to detect in predator stomachs.

What is the primary impact of zooplankton grazing on marine primary production, and why is it a challenge for global models?

Zooplankton grazing accounts for the majority of organic carbon loss from marine primary production. This grazing is a key factor in regulating marine food web structure and carbon flux, but empirical measurements of grazing are sparse, making it difficult to accurately parameterize grazing functions in global predictive models.

Beyond food webs, what other crucial role do zooplankton play in marine biogeochemistry?

Zooplankton play a vital role in marine biogeochemistry by acting as 'recyclers' of carbon and other nutrients. Through processes like excretion, sloppy feeding, and the production of fecal pellets, they release dissolved organic matter (DOM), which influences DOM cycling and supports the microbial loop, significantly impacting nutrient cycles and carbon transport to the deep ocean.

What are the main processes by which zooplankton release dissolved organic matter (DOM)?

Zooplankton release dissolved organic matter (DOM) primarily through excretion and sloppy feeding (the inefficient breakdown of food). Additionally, protozoan grazers release DOM through excretion and egestion, while gelatinous zooplankton can also release DOM via mucus production. Leaching from fecal pellets can also contribute, though it's considered less significant for crustaceans.

What factors can influence the amount of DOM released by zooplankton?

Several factors influence DOM release by zooplankton, including absorption efficiency (the proportion of food absorbed), respiration rates, the relative sizes of the zooplankton and their prey, and diet composition. For instance, carnivorous diets tend to release more DOM and ammonium than omnivorous diets.

What are the primary mechanisms by which zooplankton contribute to carbon export in the ocean?

Zooplankton contribute to carbon export through the production of fecal pellets, mucous feeding webs, molts, and carcasses. These processes help package organic carbon, facilitating its sinking to deeper ocean layers as part of the biological pump.

How do fecal pellets contribute to carbon export, and what factors influence their effectiveness?

Fecal pellets are a significant contributor to carbon export, with their size, rather than the abundance of the zooplankton producing them, often determining how much carbon reaches the ocean floor. Factors like the time and location, the occurrence of zooplankton blooms, microbial reworking of pellets, and the carbon composition of the pellets influence their effectiveness in exporting carbon.

Why are carcasses, particularly those of gelatinous zooplankton ('jelly falls'), gaining recognition for their role in carbon export?

Carcasses, especially those from gelatinous zooplankton ('jelly falls'), are gaining recognition because their large size means they can hold a substantial amount of carbon. When these large carcasses sink, they represent a potentially important food source for benthic organisms and contribute significantly to carbon export to the deep sea.

How do some dinoflagellates engage in symbiosis with other organisms, such as radiolarians?

Some dinoflagellates engage in symbiosis with other organisms; for example, certain nassellarian radiolarians host dinoflagellate symbionts within their silica shells. The radiolarian provides the dinoflagellate with necessary compounds like ammonium and carbon dioxide, while the dinoflagellate offers a protective mucous membrane.

What makes the fossil records of foraminiferans valuable for scientific research?

The fossil records of foraminiferans are valuable because they are widely researched and well-established, allowing scientists to infer significant information about past oceanic conditions and climates based on the preserved shells.

How can zooplankton act as a reservoir for the bacterium *Vibrio cholerae*?

Crustacean zooplankton can host *Vibrio cholerae*, the bacterium responsible for cholera. The bacteria attach to the zooplankton's chitinous exoskeletons, which provide them with carbon and nitrogen, enhancing their survival in aquatic environments and potentially serving as a reservoir for the pathogen.

How does the body size of zooplankton critically influence the efficiency of the biological carbon pump?

Zooplankton body size is critical for the biological carbon pump because it influences trophic links within planktonic ecosystems. Larger zooplankton, for instance, may produce larger fecal pellets, which sink more efficiently, thus playing a more significant role in transporting carbon from the surface to the deep ocean.

Provide examples of mixotrophic zooplankton from the table, noting their strategies.

The table lists examples like oligotrich ciliates that retain plastids (chloroplasts), dinoflagellates such as *Dinophysis acuminata* which retain chloroplasts from specific algal species, and *Noctiluca scintillans* which can have algal endosymbionts. Some Rhizaria, including foraminifera, also exhibit mixotrophy through endosymbionts.

List some key protozooplankton groups mentioned.

Key protozooplankton groups mentioned include zooflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians, and dinoflagellates. These are all single-celled protists that play significant roles in the planktonic community.

What group typically dominates the mesozooplankton size class in most regions?

In most oceanic regions, copepods, a type of crustacean, typically dominate the mesozooplankton size class due to their abundance and widespread distribution.

What is the temperature-size rule (TSR) observed in ectotherms, and what factors complicate its interpretation in the ocean?

The temperature-size rule (TSR) posits that ectotherms tend to reach smaller adult sizes in warmer environments and larger sizes in colder ones. In the ocean, this relationship is complicated by factors like oxygen availability, which is often linked to temperature but can independently affect growth and size, making it difficult to isolate temperature's precise effect.

What are the different size classifications for zooplankton mentioned in the text?

Zooplankton are categorized by size into picozooplankton (less than 2 micrometers), nanozooplankton (2-20 micrometers), microzooplankton (20-200 micrometers), and mesozooplankton (0.2-20 millimeters).

What defines protozooplankton, and what are some key examples found in marine environments?

Protozooplankton are planktonic protozoans, which are single-celled organisms belonging to the protist kingdom. Key examples in marine environments include zooflagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians, and certain types of dinoflagellates.

What are dinoflagellates, and what are some of their notable characteristics, including their predatory behavior and armor?

Dinoflagellates are a major group of planktonic protists, often characterized by two flagella for movement and a protective cellulose armor. Many are predatory, contributing to the zooplankton community, and some species are known for causing harmful algal blooms, or red tides, due to their toxins.

What distinguishes mixoplankton from other plankton, and how common are mixotrophs among microscopic plankton?

Mixoplankton are distinguished by their mixotrophic nature, meaning they can utilize both photosynthesis and predation to obtain energy and nutrients. It is estimated that mixotrophs represent over half of all microscopic plankton in the oceans, blurring the lines between phytoplankton and zooplankton.

How has the perceived ecological role of gelatinous zooplankton, such as jellyfish, evolved in scientific understanding?

The scientific understanding of gelatinous zooplankton has evolved from viewing them as minor, low-value components of the marine food web to recognizing their significant roles. They are now understood to be important predators in pelagic food webs, capable of blooming in vast numbers and influencing ecosystem dynamics.

What is the primary impact of zooplankton grazing on marine primary production, and why is it a challenge for global models?

Zooplankton grazing is the primary factor responsible for the loss of organic carbon from marine primary production. This process is challenging to model globally because empirical measurements of grazing rates are sparse, making it difficult to accurately represent this crucial ecological interaction in large-scale ecosystem models.

Beyond food webs, what other crucial role do zooplankton play in marine biogeochemistry?

Beyond their role in food webs, zooplankton are vital in marine biogeochemistry as 'recyclers' of carbon and nutrients. They significantly influence nutrient cycles and the biological pump through processes like excretion and sloppy feeding, which release dissolved organic matter and support the microbial loop.

What are the primary mechanisms by which zooplankton contribute to carbon export in the ocean?

Zooplankton contribute to carbon export primarily through the production of fecal pellets, which sink and transport carbon to deeper waters. They also contribute via mucous feeding webs, molts, and carcasses, particularly the large 'jelly falls' of gelatinous zooplankton, all of which play a role in the biological pump.

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What is Zooplankton?

Definition and Etymology

Zooplankton represents the heterotrophic component of the planktonic community, meaning they must consume other organisms for sustenance. The term originates from Ancient Greek: zōon (animal) and planktos (drifter). These aquatic organisms are characterized by their inability to swim effectively against currents, thus drifting with oceanic or aquatic flows.

Contrast with Phytoplankton

Zooplankton are fundamentally distinct from phytoplankton, which are the autotrophic (self-feeding) primary producers, utilizing sunlight for photosynthesis. Zooplankton, being heterotrophic, rely on consuming phytoplankton or other smaller organisms. This places them as crucial primary consumers in aquatic food webs.

Size and Mobility

The size spectrum of zooplankton is vast, ranging from microscopic single-celled protozoans to macroscopic organisms like jellyfish, visible to the naked eye. While primarily transported by currents, many zooplankton possess limited locomotion capabilities, utilized for predator avoidance (e.g., diel vertical migration) or enhancing prey encounters.

Size Classification

Size Categories

Body size is a critical trait in planktonic ecosystems, influencing trophic interactions and ecological functions. Zooplankton are categorized into distinct size classes:

Zooplankton Type	Size Range
Picozooplankton	< 2 µm
Nanozooplankton	2–20 µm
Microzooplankton	20–200 µm
Mesozooplankton	0.2–20 mm

Note: Size ranges can vary slightly depending on the classification system.

Microzooplankton Significance

Microzooplankton, primarily phagotrophic protists and small metazoans, are pivotal grazers of marine phytoplankton, consuming a substantial portion of global primary production. They are also critical in nutrient regeneration, fueling primary productivity and serving as a food source for larger metazoans. Despite their ecological importance, they remain relatively understudied due to methodological challenges.

Mesozooplankton Dynamics

Mesozooplankton, often dominated by copepods, represent a significant link between primary producers and higher trophic levels, particularly fish. Their relatively short life cycles make them sensitive indicators of climate change, reflecting ecosystem responses to environmental shifts on an annual basis.

Taxonomic Groups

Protozooplankton

This category encompasses single-celled zooplankton, including diverse protists. Key groups feature intricate silica shells (Radiolarians) or calcium carbonate tests (Foraminiferans), both crucial in paleoceanographic studies. Amoebas exhibit varied forms, while ciliates utilize cilia for motility and feeding. Dinoflagellates, often mixotrophic, play complex roles, including some species that cause harmful algal blooms.

Radiolarians: Predatory protists with elaborate silica shells, important microfossils.

Foraminiferans: Protists with chambered calcite shells (tests), valuable for climate reconstruction.

Amoeba: Unicellular organisms exhibiting variable forms, some with protective shells (testate).

Ciliates: Characterized by cilia for movement and feeding, significant grazers.

Dinoflagellates: Flagellated protists, many are mixotrophic or predatory, some are bioluminescent or toxic.

Planktonic Metazoa

This group includes multicellular animals that spend part or all of their life cycle as plankton. It comprises a vast array of organisms, from the ubiquitous copepods and krill to larval stages of benthic and nektonic animals. Gelatinous zooplankton, like jellyfish and salps, are increasingly recognized for their significant ecological roles.

Crustaceans: Dominant group including copepods, krill, ostracods, amphipods, and larval stages of decapods and barnacles.

Chaetognaths: Predatory "arrow worms" with unique predatory adaptations.

Molluscs: Includes planktonic forms like pteropods ("sea butterflies").

Gelatinous Zooplankton: Includes jellyfish, ctenophores, salps, and siphonophores, often forming large blooms.

Ichthyoplankton: Fish eggs and larvae, crucial early life stages drifting in the water column.

Role in Food Webs

Primary Consumers

Zooplankton form the critical link between primary production (phytoplankton) and higher trophic levels. Their grazing activity directly transfers energy and nutrients from the microscopic base of the food web to larger consumers, including fish, marine mammals, and seabirds. This grazing pressure significantly influences phytoplankton population dynamics.

Gelatinous Giants

Once considered ecological dead ends, gelatinous zooplankton are now understood to play substantial roles. Their large biomass, especially during blooms, provides a food source for specialized predators. Their rapid digestion and low capture costs can make them more significant dietary components than previously assumed.

Early Life Stages

Ichthyoplankton, comprising fish eggs and larvae, are entirely planktonic due to their limited swimming ability. They represent a vital early life stage, consuming smaller plankton and serving as prey for a wide range of marine organisms, thus playing a crucial role in population dynamics and ecosystem structure.

Biogeochemical Significance

Nutrient Recycling

Zooplankton are vital "recyclers" in marine ecosystems. Through excretion, sloppy feeding, and egestion, they release dissolved organic matter (DOM) and nutrients back into the water column. This process fuels primary production and supports the microbial loop, significantly impacting nutrient cycling and overall ocean productivity.

Carbon Export

Zooplankton are key drivers of the ocean's biological pump, facilitating the transport of carbon to the deep ocean. This occurs via fecal pellets, molts, carcasses, and mucous structures. The size and composition of these particles, along with zooplankton activity, determine the efficiency of carbon export and sequestration.

DOM Release Mechanisms

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) release by zooplankton occurs through excretion, sloppy feeding (inefficient consumption), and leaching from fecal pellets. Factors like feeding rate, prey type, absorption efficiency, and respiration significantly influence the quantity and quality of DOM released, impacting microbial communities and biogeochemical cycles.

Key Concepts

Core Terminology

Understanding zooplankton requires familiarity with key terms:

Heterotrophic: Organisms that obtain nutrients by consuming other organisms.
Plankton: Aquatic organisms unable to swim effectively against currents.
Phytoplankton: Autotrophic (photosynthetic) plankton.
Mixotrophy: Organisms capable of obtaining energy from multiple sources (e.g., photosynthesis and heterotrophy).
Biological Pump: The process by which carbon is transported from the surface ocean to the deep ocean.
Diel Vertical Migration: Daily vertical movement of zooplankton, often from deep waters to surface waters at night.

Ecological Importance

Zooplankton are fundamental to marine ecosystem health. They:

Transfer energy from primary producers to higher trophic levels.
Influence phytoplankton biomass and community structure through grazing.
Contribute significantly to nutrient cycling and regeneration.
Play a critical role in the ocean's biological carbon pump.
Serve as indicators of environmental change and health.

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References

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Ocean's Microscopic Mariners

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Zooplankton? ℹ️

🌊 Definition and Etymology

🌿 Contrast with Phytoplankton

📏 Size and Mobility

Size Classification 📏

📊 Size Categories

🔬 Microzooplankton Significance

🦐 Mesozooplankton Dynamics

Taxonomic Groups 🧬

🦠 Protozooplankton

🐟 Planktonic Metazoa

Role in Food Webs 🍽️

➡️ Primary Consumers

🐡 Gelatinous Giants

👶 Early Life Stages

Biogeochemical Significance 🧪

♻️ Nutrient Recycling

⬇️ Carbon Export

💧 DOM Release Mechanisms

Key Concepts 💡

📚 Core Terminology

🌐 Ecological Importance

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Zooplankton?

Definition and Etymology

Contrast with Phytoplankton

Size and Mobility

Size Classification

Size Categories

Microzooplankton Significance

Mesozooplankton Dynamics

Taxonomic Groups

Protozooplankton

Planktonic Metazoa

Role in Food Webs

Primary Consumers

Gelatinous Giants

Early Life Stages

Biogeochemical Significance

Nutrient Recycling

Carbon Export

DOM Release Mechanisms

Key Concepts

Core Terminology

Ecological Importance

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

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Discover other topics to study!

References

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Disclaimer

Important Notice