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According to Acoma tradition, when was the Sky City Pueblo established?
Answer: In the 11th century
Acoma tradition indicates the establishment of the Sky City Pueblo in the 11th century, with notable early construction (circa 1144) characterized by the absence of adobe materials.
Estevanico, an explorer of African descent, was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma Pueblo, reporting it as the 'Kingdom of Hacus'.
Answer: True
Estevanico, an explorer of African descent, was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma Pueblo, reporting it to Marcos de Niza as the independent Kingdom of Hacus.
During the Coronado expedition in 1540, Hernando de Alvarado described Acoma Pueblo as a very strong place built upon solid rock, with steep sides and a single hand-built stairway as the sole entrance.
Answer: True
Hernando de Alvarado, during the 1540 Coronado expedition, described Acoma Pueblo ('Acuco') as 'a very strange place built upon solid rock' and 'one of the strongest places we have seen,' noting its steep sides and a single hand-built stairway as the sole entrance.
According to the traditional Acoma narrative, the conflict between Juan de Zaldívar and the Acoma people in December 1598 originated from an attack on Acoma women by Spanish individuals.
Answer: True
The conflict in December 1598 originated from a dispute during a trade visit by Juan de Zaldívar. While Spanish accounts differ, the traditional Acoma narrative states the confrontation began after Spanish individuals attacked Acoma women, resulting in Acoma retaliation and the death of 12 Spaniards.
The Acoma Massacre in January 1599 resulted in the deaths of approximately 800 Acoma people and the imprisonment of around 500.
Answer: True
The Acoma Massacre (January 1599), a Spanish reprisal, involved extensive destruction and resulted in approximately 800 Acoma deaths and 500 imprisonments. Survivors endured severe punishments, including amputation and enslavement.
Following the Acoma Massacre, Spanish rule imposed taxes on the Acoma people, and missionaries introduced new crops such as peaches and wheat.
Answer: True
Post-massacre, Acoma survivors rebuilt (1599-1620). Spanish rule imposed taxes and labor demands, while missionaries introduced crops such as peaches and wheat. A 1620 decree formalized Spanish civil offices within the pueblo.
Acoma Pueblo participated in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
Answer: True
Acoma Pueblo actively participated in the 1680 Pueblo Revolt against Spanish rule. The revolt saw refugees seeking shelter in Acoma and some Acoma individuals later contributing to the formation of Laguna Pueblo.
The arrival of railroads in the 1880s ended the isolation of Acoma Pueblo and led to a suppression of traditional Acoma arts due to increased dependence on manufactured goods.
Answer: True
The arrival of railroads in the 1880s ended the isolation of Acoma Pueblo and led to a suppression of traditional Acoma arts due to increased dependence on manufactured goods.
Spanish colonization, particularly with the later arrival of railroads, led to a decline in traditional Acoma arts like weaving and pottery due to increased reliance on manufactured goods.
Answer: True
Spanish colonization and the subsequent arrival of railroads led to increased reliance on manufactured goods, suppressing traditional Acoma arts like weaving and pottery, despite historical extensive trading networks.
After the 1599 massacre, Spanish punishments included enslavement for 20 years and the amputation of right feet for men over 25.
Answer: True
Post-1599 Massacre punishments included amputation of right feet for men over 25, enslavement for 20 years for many survivors, and the amputation of hands from two visiting Indian men as a warning.
Who was the first non-Indian explorer documented to have visited Acoma Pueblo?
Answer: Estevanico
Estevanico, an explorer of African descent, was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma Pueblo, reporting it to Marcos de Niza as the independent Kingdom of Hacus.
How did Hernando de Alvarado describe Acoma Pueblo in 1540?
Answer: As a very strong place built upon solid rock
Hernando de Alvarado, during the 1540 Coronado expedition, described Acoma Pueblo ('Acuco') as 'a very strange place built upon solid rock' and 'one of the strongest places we have seen,' noting its steep sides and a single hand-built stairway as the sole entrance.
What was the primary cause of the conflict between Juan de Zaldívar and the Acoma people in December 1598, according to the traditional Acoma narrative?
Answer: A Spanish attack on Acoma women
The conflict in December 1598 originated from a dispute during a trade visit by Juan de Zaldívar. While Spanish accounts differ, the traditional Acoma narrative states the confrontation began after Spanish individuals attacked Acoma women, resulting in Acoma retaliation and the death of 12 Spaniards.
What was a severe consequence for Acoma survivors following the Acoma Massacre in January 1599?
Answer: Amputation of right feet for men over 25 and enslavement
Post-1599 Massacre punishments included amputation of right feet for men over 25, enslavement for 20 years for many survivors, and the amputation of hands from two visiting Indian men as a warning.
Acoma Pueblo participated in which major 17th-century uprising against Spanish colonial rule?
Answer: The Pueblo Revolt of 1680
Acoma Pueblo actively participated in the 1680 Pueblo Revolt against Spanish rule. The revolt saw refugees seeking shelter in Acoma and some Acoma individuals later contributing to the formation of Laguna Pueblo.
What was a significant negative impact of the arrival of railroads in the 1880s on Acoma Pueblo?
Answer: Dependence on manufactured goods and suppression of traditional arts
The arrival of railroads in the 1880s ended the isolation of Acoma Pueblo and led to a suppression of traditional Acoma arts due to increased dependence on manufactured goods.
What impact did the Spanish introduction of horses have on Acoma society?
Answer: It likely influenced transportation, warfare, and daily life.
The introduction of horses by the Spanish in the 17th century likely influenced Acoma transportation, warfare, and daily life.
During the 20th century, Acoma children were compelled to use English and abandon traditional customs in Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools.
Answer: True
During the 20th century, Acoma children were compelled to use English and abandon traditional customs in Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools.
Visitors to Acoma Pueblo are prohibited from taking video recordings, drawings, and sketches; photography requires a permit and is forbidden inside the church.
Answer: True
Visitors to Acoma Pueblo are prohibited from taking video recordings, drawings, and sketches; photography requires a permit and is forbidden inside the church.
Before European contact, the Acoma diet consisted mainly of corn, beans, and squash.
Answer: True
Pre-contact Acoma diet centered on corn, beans, and squash, supplemented by hunting and cultivation of tobacco and sunflowers. Post-1700, Spanish influence introduced peaches and wheat.
Acoma pottery is known for its use of dense clay strengthened with pulverized pottery shards, and its traditional designs often feature geometric patterns, thunderbirds, and rainbows.
Answer: True
Acoma pottery, with over 1,000 years of history, utilizes dense clay reinforced with pulverized shards. Traditional designs include geometric patterns, thunderbirds, and rainbows. A quality check involves listening for a ring when the pot is struck.
The San Esteban Festival is celebrated in September to honor the Acoma's patron saint, Saint Stephen.
Answer: True
The San Esteban Festival, held in September, honors Saint Stephen with a public procession, chanting, rifle salutes, bell ringing, dancing, feasting, and sales of pottery and cuisine.
Traditional Acoma education involved minimal discipline and was primarily overseen by kiva headmen.
Answer: True
Traditional Acoma child-rearing emphasized minimal discipline. Education, overseen by kiva headmen, covered diverse subjects from spirituality and ethics to history and music.
Acoma Pueblo features seven kivas, which serve as ceremonial and spiritual centers.
Answer: True
Acoma Pueblo contains seven rectangular kivas, functioning as vital religious chambers and spiritual centers integral to the community's practices.
Historically, the Acoma utilized weapons such as war clubs, stones, spears, and darts in warfare.
Answer: True
Historically, Acoma warfare involved weapons like war clubs, stones, spears, and darts. Their military role later included service as auxiliaries for Spanish and Mexican forces.
'Pueblo' is a Spanish word meaning 'village' or 'small town' and refers to the people and their architecture.
Answer: True
The term 'Pueblo' is Spanish for 'village' or 'small town' and refers to both the people and their distinctive architectural style in the southwestern United States.
The Acoma people historically engaged in communal sharing of labor and produce, and participated in extensive trading networks.
Answer: True
Historically, Acoma economic practices included communal labor sharing and extensive trade networks, exchanging items like ornaments and turquoise for buckskins, hides, and horses.
Which of the following crops was introduced to Acoma Pueblo by Spanish missionaries after the conquest?
Answer: Peaches
Pre-contact Acoma diet centered on corn, beans, and squash. Post-1700, Spanish influence introduced crops such as peaches and wheat.
What policy in the 20th century challenged Acoma cultural traditions by forcing children into boarding schools?
Answer: The Bureau of Indian Affairs' assimilation policy
During the 20th century, Acoma children were compelled to use English and abandon traditional customs in Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools.
How is the Acoma language linguistically classified?
Answer: Belonging to the western division of the Keresan languages
The Acoma language is linguistically classified within the western division of the Keresan languages. Contemporary Acoma Pueblo society is largely bilingual, with proficiency in both Acoma and English.
Which activity is strictly prohibited for visitors at Acoma Pueblo according to the source?
Answer: Video recording inside the church
Visitors to Acoma Pueblo are prohibited from taking video recordings, drawings, and sketches; photography requires a permit and is forbidden inside the church.
What were the primary components of the Acoma diet before European contact?
Answer: Corn, beans, and squash
Pre-contact Acoma diet centered on corn, beans, and squash, supplemented by hunting and cultivation of tobacco and sunflowers. Post-1700, Spanish influence introduced peaches and wheat.
What is a distinctive characteristic of Acoma pottery mentioned in the source?
Answer: Strengthening the clay with pulverized pottery shards
Acoma pottery, with over 1,000 years of history, utilizes dense clay reinforced with pulverized shards. Traditional designs include geometric patterns, thunderbirds, and rainbows. A quality check involves listening for a ring when the pot is struck.
The San Esteban Festival, celebrated in September, involves which of the following activities?
Answer: A procession with an effigy of Saint Stephen and traditional dancing
The San Esteban Festival, held in September, honors Saint Stephen with a public procession, chanting, rifle salutes, bell ringing, dancing, feasting, and sales of pottery and cuisine.
According to traditional Acoma child-rearing practices, what was the approach to discipline?
Answer: Minimal discipline
Traditional Acoma child-rearing emphasized minimal discipline. Education, overseen by kiva headmen, covered diverse subjects from spirituality and ethics to history and music.
Historically, what did the Acoma people trade with nomadic traders?
Answer: Turquoise, ornaments, and feathers for buckskins and hides
Historically, Acoma economic practices included communal labor sharing and extensive trade networks, exchanging items like ornaments and turquoise for buckskins, hides, and horses.
The term 'encaconados', used by Estevanico, described the Acoma people as wearing what?
Answer: Turquoise jewelry in their ears and noses
Estevanico's term 'encaconados' described the Acoma people as wearing turquoise jewelry in their ears and noses.
What was the primary function of the kivas in Acoma Pueblo?
Answer: Religious chambers and spiritual centers
Acoma Pueblo contains seven rectangular kivas, functioning as vital religious chambers and spiritual centers integral to the community's practices.
What specific quality check is traditionally performed on Acoma pottery before firing?
Answer: Listening for a ring when the pot is struck
A quality check for Acoma pottery involves striking the pot and listening for a ring; pieces that do not ring are repurposed for future clay mixtures.
What does the term 'Pueblo' mean in the context of Native American tribes?
Answer: A Spanish word for 'village' or 'small town'
The term 'Pueblo' is Spanish for 'village' or 'small town' and refers to both the people and their distinctive architectural style in the southwestern United States.
Today, the Acoma Pueblo mesa lacks modern utilities such as electricity, running water, and a sewage disposal system.
Answer: True
Today, the Acoma Pueblo mesa lacks modern utilities like electricity, running water, and sewage disposal.
The Acoma Indian Reservation covers an area of approximately 1,600 square miles.
Answer: True
The Acoma Indian Reservation encompasses approximately 1,600 square miles (1,600 km²).
Historically, Acoma was governed by a theocracy, and while the Spanish imposed a system with an appointed governor, it was not fully adopted by the Acoma.
Answer: True
Historically governed by a theocracy, Acoma did not fully adopt the Spanish imposed administrative structure. The cacique retains significant influence, appointing tribal council members and the governor.
Acoma Pueblo possesses natural reserves of gas, geothermal energy, and coal, but has faced economic challenges including high unemployment following the closure of uranium mines.
Answer: True
Acoma Pueblo possesses natural reserves of gas, geothermal energy, and coal. Economic challenges include high unemployment and radiation pollution from closed uranium mines.
Tourism is a major source of income for Acoma Pueblo, supported by facilities like the Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum.
Answer: True
Tourism is a major economic contributor, supported by the Sky City Cultural Center, Haak'u Museum, and the Sky City Casino Hotel, managed by the Acoma Business Enterprise.
The Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum were established to promote tourism and showcase Acoma history and artwork.
Answer: True
The Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum were established to sustain and preserve Acoma culture and serve as a hub for visitors, contributing to cultural continuity and tourism revenue.
Acoma Pueblo traditionally managed water resources using natural cisterns and irrigation techniques such as dams and terraces.
Answer: True
Acoma Pueblo employed sophisticated water management, utilizing two natural cisterns and irrigation techniques like dams and terraces.
What essential modern utilities are currently lacking on the Acoma Pueblo mesa?
Answer: Electricity, running water, and sewage disposal
Today, the Acoma Pueblo mesa lacks modern utilities like electricity, running water, and sewage disposal.
What role does the cacique play in the current governance structure of Acoma Pueblo?
Answer: Appoints tribal council members and the governor
The cacique, historically a religious and governing leader, remains active in contemporary Acoma governance by appointing tribal council members and the governor.
Which of the following is a significant economic challenge faced by Acoma Pueblo related to natural resources?
Answer: Radiation pollution from closed uranium mines
Uranium mines provided employment until their 1980s closure, but resulted in radiation pollution, impacting the community's fishing lake and health.
What is the primary purpose of the Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum?
Answer: To preserve Acoma culture and attract visitors
The Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum were established to sustain and preserve Acoma culture and serve as a hub for visitors, contributing to cultural continuity and tourism revenue.
The Pueblo Lands Act of 1924 was enacted primarily in response to congressional interest in appropriating Pueblo lands.
Answer: Appropriating Pueblo lands and retaining ownership
The Pueblo Lands Act of 1924 addressed congressional interest in appropriating Pueblo lands, aiding Acoma Pueblo in retaining its territory, though cultural preservation challenges persisted through the 20th century.
Acoma Pueblo is comprised of four distinct communities, including Sky City, Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys.
Answer: True
The village of Acoma Pueblo is comprised of four distinct communities: Sky City (also known as Old Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys.
The name 'Acoma' does not directly translate to 'Sky City' in the modern Acoma language.
Answer: True
The name 'Acoma' derives from the Acoma word 'Áak'u', meaning 'person from Acoma Pueblo'. While not directly translating to 'Sky City' in the modern Acoma language, some interpretations connect it to 'preparedness'.
Acoma Pueblo's mesa location provided protection from raids by the Navajo and Apache peoples for over 1,200 years.
Answer: True
The mesa location of Acoma Pueblo, rising 365 feet, provided significant isolation and protection, sheltering the community for over 1,200 years from raids by Navajo and Apache peoples.
The San Esteban Del Rey Mission Church was constructed primarily by Acoma people, who provided labor and materials, using locally sourced sandstone and adobe.
Answer: True
The San Esteban Del Rey Mission Church was constructed primarily by Acoma people, who provided labor and materials, using locally sourced sandstone and adobe.
Which of the following is NOT one of the four main communities constituting Acoma Pueblo?
Answer: Laguna
The village of Acoma Pueblo is comprised of four distinct communities: Sky City (also known as Old Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys. Laguna is a separate pueblo.
What strategic advantage did the mesa location of Acoma Pueblo primarily offer?
Answer: A defensive position against raids
The mesa location of Acoma Pueblo provided significant isolation and protection, sheltering the community for over 1,200 years from raids by Navajo and Apache peoples.
The San Esteban Del Rey Mission Church required the Acoma people to provide what for its construction?
Answer: Labor and materials
The San Esteban Del Rey Mission Church was constructed primarily by Acoma people, who provided labor and materials, using locally sourced sandstone and adobe.
What is the architectural style most associated with Acoma Pueblo?
Answer: Pueblo style
Acoma Pueblo's architecture is primarily characterized by the Pueblo style, incorporating elements of Territorial Style, evident in its multi-story adobe structures.