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Avian malaria is exclusively caused by parasites belonging to the genus *Plasmodium*.
Answer: False
Avian malaria is caused by parasites belonging to the genera *Plasmodium* and *Hemoproteus*, rendering the statement that it is exclusively caused by *Plasmodium* inaccurate.
The parasites responsible for avian malaria are classified as protozoa within the phylum Apicomplexa.
Answer: True
As stated in the supporting materials, the parasites responsible for avian malaria are classified as protozoa within the phylum Apicomplexa.
The species *Plasmodium relictum* is a notable cause of avian malaria and is found on all continents except Antarctica.
Answer: True
*Plasmodium relictum* is indeed a significant cause of avian malaria and is distributed globally, notably absent only from the continent of Antarctica.
*Plasmodium anasum* and *Plasmodium gallinaceum* are significant threats primarily to wild bird populations, rarely impacting the poultry industry.
Answer: False
While primarily affecting wild birds, species such as *Plasmodium anasum* and *Plasmodium gallinaceum* can also pose a threat to the poultry industry, contrary to the assertion that their impact is rare.
Avian malaria parasites reproduce only asexually within their insect vectors.
Answer: False
Avian malaria parasites undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction within their insect vectors, meaning they do not reproduce solely asexually in this stage.
*Plasmodium relictum* is the most common avian malaria species, and its epidemiology is often studied using variations in the nuclear gene MSP1.
Answer: True
*Plasmodium relictum* is the most common avian malaria species, and its epidemiology and geographical distribution are frequently studied using genetic variation in the nuclear gene MSP1 (merozoite surface protein 1).
Sporozoites are the mature stage of the malaria parasite found in a bird's red blood cells.
Answer: False
Sporozoites are immature forms of the malaria parasite that initiate the infection cycle. They are not the mature stage found within red blood cells.
After sporozoites enter a bird, they mature into merozoites within macrophages in various organs.
Answer: True
Upon entering a bird, sporozoites mature into merozoites within fibroblasts and macrophages. These merozoites are released into the bloodstream and subsequently infect macrophages in various organs, including the brain, liver, spleen, kidney, and lungs.
The bursting of infected red blood cells releases merozoites, leading to the chronic phase of avian malaria.
Answer: False
The bursting of infected red blood cells releases merozoites, which leads to the acute phase of avian malaria, not the chronic phase.
*Plasmodium relictum* causes anemia by infecting the bone marrow cells responsible for producing red blood cells.
Answer: False
*Plasmodium relictum* causes anemia by reproducing within and destroying red blood cells, not by infecting bone marrow cells responsible for their production.
Avian malaria parasites reproduce sexually within their bird hosts.
Answer: False
Avian malaria parasites reproduce asexually within their avian hosts and undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction within their insect vectors, such as mosquitoes, biting midges, and louse flies.
What are the two primary genera of parasites responsible for causing avian malaria?
Answer: *Plasmodium* and *Hemoproteus*
The primary genera responsible for causing avian malaria are *Plasmodium* and *Hemoproteus*, as detailed in the supporting materials.
What is the most notable species of *Plasmodium* that causes avian malaria, and where is it notably absent?
Answer: *Plasmodium relictum*; absent from Antarctica.
*Plasmodium relictum* is recognized as a significant cause of avian malaria and is found globally, with the notable exception of Antarctica.
Which *Plasmodium* species is most commonly associated with avian malaria, and what genetic marker is used to study its epidemiology?
Answer: *Plasmodium relictum*; MSP1 gene
*Plasmodium relictum* is the most common avian malaria species, and its epidemiology and geographical distribution are frequently studied using genetic variation in the nuclear gene MSP1 (merozoite surface protein 1).
What occurs during the acute phase of avian malaria infection in susceptible birds?
Answer: Anemia and general symptoms of illness due to red blood cell destruction.
During the acute phase of avian malaria infection in susceptible birds, the primary manifestations include anemia, resulting from the destruction of red blood cells, and general symptoms of illness.
How does *Plasmodium relictum* primarily cause anemia in infected birds?
Answer: By reproducing within red blood cells, leading to their destruction.
*Plasmodium relictum* causes anemia by reproducing within and destroying red blood cells, leading to a subsequent deficiency in oxygen-carrying capacity.
Mosquitoes are the sole vectors responsible for transmitting all types of avian malaria parasites.
Answer: False
While mosquitoes transmit *Plasmodium* species, biting midges are also vectors for avian malaria parasites, specifically *Hemoproteus*. Thus, mosquitoes are not the sole vectors for all types.
Avian malaria is absent from the continent of Antarctica.
Answer: True
Avian malaria is globally distributed, with notable exceptions such as Antarctica. Its introduction into naive populations, as seen in Hawaii, can result in devastating effects.
Louse flies are exclusively vectors for *Plasmodium* species causing avian malaria.
Answer: False
Louse flies are known vectors for *Haemoproteus* species, not exclusively for *Plasmodium* species causing avian malaria. Mosquitoes are the primary vectors for *Plasmodium*.
Migratory birds play a role in the dispersal of avian malaria parasites across different regions.
Answer: True
Migratory birds facilitate the dispersal of avian malaria parasites, influencing prevalence patterns across regions and altering host-parasite adaptation processes.
The relationship between avian malaria parasites and their specific insect vectors is very well understood.
Answer: False
Compared to parasite-avian interactions, the relationships between avian malaria parasites and their specific vectors are less explored. While databases like MalAvi document known vectors, comprehensive knowledge remains incomplete.
The global incidence of avian malaria has remained stable over the past 70 years.
Answer: False
The global incidence of avian malaria has not remained stable; it has nearly tripled over the past 70 years, often correlated with rising global temperatures that expand vector mosquito ranges and activity.
Malaria infection rates have increased significantly in several European bird species, including house sparrows and great tits.
Answer: True
Significant increases in malaria infection rates have been observed in European bird species, including house sparrows (rising from <10% to ~30%), great tits (3% to 15% since 1995), Eurasian blackcaps (~4% by 1999), and tawny owls (2-3% to 60% in the UK).
Which insect vectors transmit *Plasmodium* and *Hemoproteus* parasites, respectively?
Answer: Mosquitoes transmit *Plasmodium*; biting midges transmit *Hemoproteus*.
Insect vectors for avian malaria parasites include mosquitoes (Culicidae) for *Plasmodium*, biting midges (Ceratopogonidae) for *Hemoproteus* and some *Plasmodium*, and louse flies (Hippoboscidae) for *Haemoproteus*.
Which of the following is NOT listed as a vector for avian malaria parasites?
Answer: Sandflies (family Psychodidae)
Mosquitoes, biting midges, and louse flies are identified as vectors for avian malaria parasites. Sandflies (family Psychodidae) are not listed among these vectors in the provided information.
How do migratory birds contribute to the spread of avian malaria?
Answer: They facilitate the dispersal of avian malaria parasites across different geographical regions.
Migratory birds contribute to the spread of avian malaria by facilitating the dispersal of parasites across diverse geographical regions, thereby influencing prevalence patterns and host-parasite adaptation.
Avian malaria can cause severe population declines in susceptible bird species, as exemplified by the Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Answer: True
The impact of avian malaria on bird populations can range from asymptomatic infections to severe population declines, as demonstrably observed in species such as the Hawaiian honeycreepers, according to relevant literature.
Penguins in their native habitats are highly susceptible to *Plasmodium relictum* due to a long history of co-evolution.
Answer: False
Captive penguins in non-native environments exhibit high susceptibility to *Plasmodium relictum* due to a lack of co-evolutionary resistance with the parasite, often resulting in severe disease and mortality.
Researchers have definitively linked nesting height and sexual dimorphism as the sole factors determining host susceptibility to avian malaria.
Answer: False
While nesting height and sexual dimorphism are investigated factors influencing susceptibility to avian malaria, they are not definitively linked as the sole determinants. The overall effects in wild populations remain poorly understood.
A 2015 study in Malawi found that a significant majority of birds sampled were infected with malaria or related parasites.
Answer: True
A 2015 study of Malawian bird fauna revealed that nearly 80% of sampled birds were infected with malaria or related alveolates, underscoring the widespread prevalence of these parasites.
The Malawi study indicated that open-cup nesters were more susceptible to *Plasmodium* infections than closed-cup nesters.
Answer: False
The Malawi study indicated that closed-cup nesters, such as weavers and *Cisticola* species, exhibited higher infection rates with *Plasmodium* parasites compared to open-cup nesters.
The mosquito vector *Culex quinquefasciatus* was introduced to Hawaii in the 19th century.
Answer: True
The primary mosquito vector for avian malaria in Hawaii is *Culex quinquefasciatus*, introduced to the islands in 1826, which falls within the 19th century.
The introduction of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes has had minimal impact on native bird populations in Hawaii.
Answer: False
The introduction of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes has had a devastating impact on native bird populations in Hawaii, contributing significantly to numerous extinctions.
Cold temperatures in Hawaii prevent *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes from breeding above 5,000 feet.
Answer: True
Cold temperatures restrict *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes to elevations below 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) due to inhibited larval development. However, there is concern regarding their potential adaptation to higher altitudes.
There is no concern that *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes might adapt to higher elevations in Hawaii.
Answer: False
There is significant concern regarding the potential adaptation of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes to higher elevations in Hawaii, which could expose more native bird populations to avian malaria.
Anemia is a primary symptom of avian malaria caused by the destruction of red blood cells.
Answer: True
The acute phase of avian malaria in susceptible birds is characterized by anemia due to red blood cell destruction, accompanied by general symptoms of illness such as weakness and depression. Severe cases may progress to coma and death.
Passerine birds, such as Hawaiian honeycreepers, are commonly affected by avian malaria.
Answer: True
Avian malaria primarily affects passerines (perching birds), including native Hawaiian species such as honeycreepers and the Hawaiian crow. Susceptibility varies significantly among species.
Native Hawaiian birds exhibit lower mortality rates from avian malaria compared to introduced species.
Answer: False
Native Hawaiian birds generally exhibit higher mortality rates from avian malaria compared to introduced species due to their greater susceptibility, posing severe conservation challenges for native avian fauna.
Avian malaria has contributed to the extinction of bird species in Hawaii, particularly those in low-land forest habitats.
Answer: True
*Plasmodium relictum* is implicated in restricting geographical ranges and causing extinctions of numerous Hawaiian bird species, particularly impacting forest birds in low-land habitats where the vector is prevalent.
Urbanization is the primary factor influencing *Plasmodium* infections in birds in California urban areas, according to recent studies.
Answer: False
Recent California studies indicate rainfall patterns, rather than urbanization, exert a stronger influence on *Plasmodium* infections in birds like the Dark-eyed Junco. Conversely, infections by more specialized parasites, such as *Haemoproteus*, tend to decrease in highly urbanized settings.
The Hawaiian crow (*Corvus hawaiiensis*) is an example of a passerine bird susceptible to avian malaria.
Answer: True
Avian malaria primarily affects passerines (perching birds), including native Hawaiian species such as honeycreepers and the Hawaiian crow. Susceptibility varies significantly among species.
The introduction of *Plasmodium relictum* to Hawaii occurred before the introduction of its primary mosquito vector.
Answer: False
The primary mosquito vector, *Culex quinquefasciatus*, was introduced to Hawaii in 1826, predating the widespread impact of *Plasmodium relictum* on native bird populations, which became severe after the vector's establishment.
Why are captive penguins in non-native environments particularly vulnerable to avian malaria?
Answer: They have not coevolved with these protozoa and therefore lack evolutionary resistance.
Captive penguins in non-native environments are particularly vulnerable because they have not undergone co-evolution with avian malaria protozoa, thus lacking the inherent resistance observed in species with a long history of exposure.
According to a 2015 study in Malawi, what percentage of birds sampled showed signs of malaria or related alveolate infections?
Answer: Nearly 80%
A 2015 study of Malawian bird fauna revealed that nearly 80% of sampled birds were infected with malaria or related alveolates, underscoring the widespread prevalence of these parasites.
What type of bird nests were found to be more likely infected with *Plasmodium* in the Malawi study?
Answer: Closed-cup nesters
The Malawi study indicated that closed-cup nesters, such as weavers and *Cisticola* species, exhibited higher infection rates with *Plasmodium* parasites compared to other nesting types.
What is the main concern regarding the potential upward expansion of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes in Hawaii?
Answer: They could reach higher elevations, putting most remaining native Hawaiian land birds at risk.
The primary concern regarding the potential upward expansion of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes in Hawaii is that they may reach higher elevations, thereby exposing the majority of the remaining native land bird populations to avian malaria.
Which group of birds is most commonly affected by avian malaria?
Answer: Passerines (perching birds)
Avian malaria predominantly affects passerines, commonly known as perching birds.
What has been the ecological impact of the introduced *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquito and avian malaria in Hawaii?
Answer: It has devastated native bird populations, leading to numerous extinctions.
The introduction of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes and avian malaria has had a profoundly devastating ecological impact on Hawaii's native bird populations, resulting in numerous extinctions.
Dr. Ross studied avian malaria because human malaria parasites were more readily available for research.
Answer: False
Sir Ronald Ross pursued avian malaria research as a more accessible model because studies on human malaria parasites proved challenging. The extensive diversity of avian malaria parasites offered a more manageable subject for his investigations.
The study of avian malaria parasites is simplified by the limited number of parasite lineages and host species involved.
Answer: False
The study of avian malaria parasites is significantly complicated by the vast number of parasite lineages, the broad range of host species they can infect, and their capacity for host switching, rather than being simplified.
Historically, avian malaria parasite species were classified primarily using molecular phylogenetic data.
Answer: False
Historically, avian malaria parasite species were classified based on limited morphological characteristics and host specificity. The advent of molecular phylogenetic data has since provided a more refined classification system.
Molecular data has led to a classification system for avian malaria parasites based on sequence divergence, particularly in the cytochrome b gene.
Answer: True
Molecular data has facilitated a shift from historical morphological classifications to a phylogenetic definition of parasite lineages, based on sequence divergence (e.g., cytochrome b gene) and host range, providing a more precise understanding.
The MalAvi database is designed to store information exclusively on *Plasmodium* species found in mammals.
Answer: False
The MalAvi database serves as a repository for genetic sequence data of avian malaria parasites and related haemosporidians, not exclusively for *Plasmodium* species found in mammals.
A sequence divergence of 1.2% to 4% in specific genes is often used as a cutoff to differentiate avian malaria parasite lineages.
Answer: True
In molecular studies, a sequence divergence threshold of approximately 1.2% to 4% in specific genes, such as cytochrome b, is commonly employed to differentiate between distinct avian malaria parasite lineages, particularly in the absence of other definitive genetic markers.
Molecular studies indicate that *Plasmodium* species infecting birds and mammals belong to the same evolutionary clade.
Answer: False
Molecular data indicates that *Plasmodium* species infecting birds and squamate reptiles form a distinct evolutionary clade, separate from the clade comprising species that infect mammals, suggesting divergent evolutionary pathways.
Traditionally, *Haemoproteus* classification relied solely on the type of bird host infected.
Answer: False
Traditional classification of *Haemoproteus* relied on the type of insect vector involved in transmission, not solely on the bird host species infected.
Genetic analyses of *Plasmodium relictum* show little variation between lineages found in the New World and the Old World.
Answer: False
Genetic analyses of *Plasmodium relictum* have revealed significant variation between lineages found in the New World and the Old World, suggesting multiple introductions into avian populations across different regions.
Sir Ronald Ross discovered that birds, not humans, were the primary hosts for malaria parasites.
Answer: False
Sir Ronald Ross's primary discovery involved the transmission of malaria parasites to humans by mosquitoes. He later utilized avian malaria as an experimental model to further his research.
Ronald Ross's 1897 discovery proved that *Anopheles* mosquitoes transmit malaria parasites to humans.
Answer: True
In 1897, Ronald Ross conclusively proved the role of *Anopheles* mosquitoes in human malaria transmission by discovering the parasite within the stomach tissue of a mosquito that had fed on an infected patient.
Speciation events are considered more common than host switching in the evolution of avian haemosporidians.
Answer: False
Studies suggest host switching is a more prevalent evolutionary phenomenon among avian haemosporidians, including avian malaria parasites, than speciation events, with adaptation to local hosts playing a secondary role.
The classification of avian malaria parasites based on morphology alone has led to widespread agreement on species diversity.
Answer: False
Historically, avian malaria parasite species were classified based on limited morphological characteristics and host specificity. This approach resulted in significant disagreement regarding species diversity and evolutionary relationships.
Why did researchers like Dr. Ross find avian malaria a useful model for study?
Answer: The diversity of avian malaria parasites provided a more accessible model when human malaria research proved difficult.
Avian malaria served as a more accessible model for researchers like Dr. Ross due to the extensive diversity of its parasites, particularly when research on human malaria parasites presented significant challenges.
What factor significantly complicates the study of avian malaria parasites?
Answer: The large number of parasite lineages, host species, and host-switching capabilities.
The study of avian malaria parasites is significantly complicated by the extensive diversity of parasite lineages, the broad range of host species they can infect, and their demonstrated capacity for host switching.
How has molecular data changed the classification of avian malaria parasites compared to historical methods?
Answer: It has led to a phylogenetic definition based on sequence divergence and host range.
Molecular data has facilitated a shift from historical morphological classifications to a phylogenetic definition of parasite lineages, based on sequence divergence and host range, providing a more precise understanding.
What is the primary function of the MalAvi database?
Answer: To provide a public repository for genetic sequence data of avian malaria parasites.
The MalAvi database functions as a public repository for genetic sequence data of avian malaria parasites and related haemosporidians, aiming to facilitate research into their vast diversity, particularly through sharing cytochrome b gene data.
What sequence divergence threshold is often used to differentiate between distinct avian malaria parasite lineages in molecular studies?
Answer: Approximately 1.2% to 4%
In molecular studies, a sequence divergence threshold of approximately 1.2% to 4% in specific genes, such as cytochrome b, is commonly employed to differentiate between distinct avian malaria parasite lineages, particularly in the absence of other definitive genetic markers.
Molecular studies suggest that *Plasmodium* species infecting birds and reptiles form a distinct evolutionary group separate from which other vertebrate group?
Answer: Mammals
Molecular data indicates that *Plasmodium* species infecting birds and squamate reptiles form a distinct evolutionary clade, separate from the clade comprising species that infect mammals, suggesting divergent evolutionary pathways.
How was the classification of *Haemoproteus* traditionally determined?
Answer: Based on the type of insect vector that transmitted it.
Traditionally, the classification of *Haemoproteus* was determined based on the type of insect vector responsible for its transmission.
What have genetic analyses of *Plasmodium relictum* revealed about its distribution?
Answer: Significant differences exist between New World and Old World lineages, suggesting multiple introductions.
Genetic analyses of *Plasmodium relictum* reveal significant differences between New World and Old World lineages, supporting the hypothesis of multiple introductions into avian populations across different regions.
Sir Ronald Ross's Nobel Prize in 1902 was awarded for which significant discovery?
Answer: The role of mosquitoes in transmitting malaria parasites to humans.
Sir Ronald Ross was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1902 for his groundbreaking discovery demonstrating the role of mosquitoes in transmitting malaria parasites to humans.
The primary strategy for controlling avian malaria involves direct treatment of infected birds with antimalarial drugs.
Answer: False
The primary strategy for controlling avian malaria focuses on managing and controlling mosquito populations, which serve as vectors, rather than direct treatment of infected birds.
Managing feral pig populations can indirectly aid mosquito control by reducing breeding grounds.
Answer: True
Managing feral pig populations aids mosquito control by reducing the number of wallows they create, which serve as ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes, thus decreasing larval development sites.
Emptying water from plant pots and old tires is an effective measure to reduce mosquito breeding sites around homes.
Answer: True
Effective measures around human dwellings to reduce mosquito breeding sites include emptying water from containers such as plant pots and old tires, thereby eliminating potential larval development habitats.
Mosquito control efforts in Hawaii have successfully eliminated the threat of avian malaria to native birds.
Answer: False
Mosquito control efforts in Hawaii, including habitat reduction and larvicides, have not entirely eliminated the threat of avian malaria, which continues to pose a significant risk to native bird populations.
Breeding birds naturally resistant to avian malaria is a proposed strategy for conservation.
Answer: True
A potential conservation strategy involves breeding birds naturally resistant to avian malaria, including collecting eggs from resistant individuals and reintroducing raised young to bolster population resistance and survival prospects.
CRISPR gene editing technology has been proposed as a method to control invasive mosquito populations in Hawaii.
Answer: True
CRISPR gene editing technology has been proposed as a method for extirpating invasive mosquito populations in Hawaii, thereby controlling avian malaria spread.
What is the primary strategy recommended for controlling avian malaria?
Answer: Controlling mosquito populations that act as vectors.
The primary recommended strategy for controlling avian malaria involves the management and control of mosquito populations, which serve as the disease vectors.
How can managing feral pig populations contribute to reducing avian malaria transmission in places like Hawaii?
Answer: Pigs create wallows that serve as mosquito breeding grounds, which are then reduced.
Managing feral pig populations aids mosquito control by reducing the number of wallows they create, which serve as ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes, thus decreasing larval development sites.
What novel genetic technology has been proposed for mosquito control in Hawaii?
Answer: CRISPR gene editing
CRISPR gene editing technology has been proposed as a method for extirpating invasive mosquito populations in Hawaii, thereby controlling avian malaria spread.