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Benign tumors are characterized by their potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body, a feature that distinguishes them from malignant tumors.
Answer: False
This statement describes malignant tumors. Benign tumors are defined by their inability to invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body.
Oncology is the medical specialty focused on the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer.
Answer: True
The source confirms that oncology is the medical specialty dedicated to the comprehensive management of cancer.
Which of the following is a fundamental characteristic that distinguishes malignant tumors from benign ones?
Answer: Malignant tumors have the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.
The defining characteristic of malignant tumors, as opposed to benign tumors, is their ability to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize, or spread, to other parts of the body.
What are common alternative names for cancer?
Answer: Malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm
Cancer is also referred to as a malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm, reflecting its nature as a group of cells that have undergone unregulated, invasive growth.
What was the estimated number of new cancer cases globally in 2019?
Answer: 23.6 million
In 2019, there were an estimated 23.6 million new cancer cases worldwide, representing a 26% increase over the previous decade.
One of the six hallmarks of cancer is the ability of tumor cells to evade programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis.
Answer: True
The avoidance of apoptosis is one of the six essential characteristics that all tumor cells display to facilitate malignant tumor production.
Metastasis, the process where cancer spreads from its original site, is the primary reason for most cancer-related deaths.
Answer: True
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from a primary tumor to other locations, and it is the cause of most cancer-related fatalities.
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of tissue growth regulation, involving alterations in genes responsible for cell growth and differentiation.
Answer: True
The source defines cancer as a disease of tissue growth regulation, where the genes that control cell growth and differentiation must be altered for a normal cell to become cancerous.
Oncogenes inhibit cell division and survival, while tumor suppressor genes promote cell growth and reproduction.
Answer: False
The roles are reversed: oncogenes promote cell growth and reproduction, while tumor suppressor genes inhibit cell division and survival.
The Warburg effect describes how most cancer cells primarily rely on oxidative phosphorylation for energy production, similar to normal cells.
Answer: False
The Warburg effect describes the opposite phenomenon: most cancer cells rely heavily on glycolysis for energy production, unlike normal cells which primarily use oxidative phosphorylation.
Which of the following is NOT one of the six essential hallmarks of cancer displayed by all tumor cells?
Answer: Limited cell divisions
One of the six hallmarks of cancer is the ability to undergo limitless cell divisions. Limited cell divisions are characteristic of normal, non-cancerous cells.
What are the two broad categories of genes whose alteration can lead to cancer?
Answer: Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
The two main classes of genes affected in cancer are oncogenes, which promote cell growth, and tumor suppressor genes, which inhibit cell division and survival.
What is 'clonal evolution' in the context of cancer development?
Answer: An ongoing process where initial genetic errors self-amplify and compound into more severe errors.
Clonal evolution describes the process where initial genetic errors in a cell lead to further, more severe errors, allowing the cell to escape normal growth controls and progress towards a more invasive state.
How do epigenetic alterations contribute to cancer?
Answer: They are functionally relevant modifications to the genome that regulate gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.
Epigenetic alterations, such as DNA methylation, modify how genes are expressed without altering the DNA sequence itself. These changes can be passed down through cell divisions and are frequently observed in cancers.
What is the impact of metastasis on cancer prognosis?
Answer: The prognosis typically worsens considerably, as most cancer deaths are due to metastasis.
Once a cancer has metastasized, the prognosis worsens significantly. The majority of cancer-related deaths are due to the spread of the primary tumor to other parts of the body.
Inherited genetic predispositions are the primary risk factor for the majority of cancer cases, accounting for 90-95% of diagnoses.
Answer: False
The vast majority of cancers (90-95%) are attributed to environmental and lifestyle factors, while only 5-10% are caused by inherited genetic defects.
In the context of cancer causes, the term 'environmental' refers exclusively to pollution and chemical exposure.
Answer: False
The term 'environmental' is used broadly to refer to any non-inherited factor, including lifestyle choices, diet, behavior, and exposure to infectious agents, not just pollution.
Psychological stress is a significant risk factor for the initial development of cancer.
Answer: False
Current evidence does not support psychological stress as a risk factor for the initial onset of cancer, although it may worsen outcomes for those already diagnosed.
Cancer is generally considered a transmissible disease, easily spread between individuals.
Answer: False
Cancer is generally not a transmissible disease, with very rare exceptions. However, certain transmissible infectious agents can contribute to cancer development.
Tobacco smoke is responsible for approximately 75% of all lung cancer cases.
Answer: False
Tobacco smoke is responsible for a higher percentage, accounting for 90% of all lung cancer cases.
Alcohol consumption increases the risk of cancers in the breast, throat, and liver, among others.
Answer: True
Alcohol consumption is a known risk factor for several cancers, including those of the breast, throat, liver, esophagus, mouth, larynx, and colon.
Exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), used in Teflon production, is linked to only one specific type of cancer.
Answer: False
Exposure to PFOA is known to cause at least two kinds of cancer, one of which is kidney cancer.
Certain chemotherapy drugs and immunosuppressive medications can increase the risk of developing secondary cancers.
Answer: True
Some chemotherapy agents and immunosuppressive drugs are themselves carcinogens and can elevate the risk of developing a secondary primary cancer.
Diet, physical inactivity, and obesity are collectively linked to less than 10% of cancer deaths.
Answer: False
These factors are related to a much larger proportion, approximately 30-35% of cancer deaths.
Physical inactivity contributes to cancer risk solely through its effect on body weight.
Answer: False
Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk not only through its influence on body weight but also via negative effects on the immune and endocrine systems.
Globally, infectious diseases account for a higher proportion of cancer deaths in developed countries compared to Africa.
Answer: False
The proportion of cancer deaths related to infectious diseases is significantly higher in Africa (25%) than in the developed world (less than 10%).
Children are less susceptible to radiation-induced leukemia compared to adults.
Answer: False
Children are twice as likely as adults to develop radiation-induced leukemia, indicating a higher susceptibility.
Current evidence consistently supports a strong link between mobile phone radiation and increased cancer risk.
Answer: False
While classified as a possible carcinogen, studies have not found a consistent link between mobile phone radiation and cancer risk.
The vast majority of cancers are hereditary, with inherited mutations having a large effect on cancer risk.
Answer: False
The vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary. Less than 0.3% of the population carries a genetic mutation with a large effect on cancer risk, accounting for less than 3-10% of all cancers.
Physical trauma, such as a broken bone, is a well-established direct cause of bone cancer.
Answer: False
Physical trauma resulting in cancer is rare, and claims that it directly causes cancer have not been proven. It is thought that cancer may arise during the healing process rather than from the trauma itself.
Chronic inflammation can contribute to cancer development by influencing the tumor microenvironment and potentially causing mutations.
Answer: True
Chronic inflammation is hypothesized to directly cause mutations and can promote cancer cell proliferation, survival, and migration by influencing the tumor microenvironment.
The most significant risk factor for developing cancer is advanced age.
Answer: True
Age is the most significant risk factor for developing cancer, with most invasive cancer patients being over 65, due to factors like accumulated DNA errors and immunosenescence.
Which of the following is NOT listed as a key risk factor for cancer development?
Answer: Regular physical activity
Regular physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of cancer. Insufficient physical activity is a risk factor, along with carcinogen exposure, obesity, and certain infections.
What percentage of cancer cases are caused by inherited genetic defects?
Answer: 5-10%
Only a small fraction, 5-10% of cancer cases, are caused by inherited genetic defects. The majority are due to environmental and lifestyle factors.
How can the analysis of mutational signatures from genomic sequencing contribute to identifying cancer causes?
Answer: They can reveal if a cancer was caused by specific environmental or lifestyle factors.
Analyzing mutational signatures in tumor DNA can help identify the causative agents, such as distinguishing lung cancer caused by tobacco smoke from that caused by other factors.
What percentage of lung cancer cases are directly attributed to tobacco smoke?
Answer: 90%
Tobacco smoke is the leading cause of lung cancer, responsible for 90% of cases.
Which of the following cancers is NOT listed as being caused by tobacco use?
Answer: Brain cancer
The source lists cancers of the mouth, kidney, and pancreas as being caused by tobacco use, but does not include brain cancer in this list.
Exposure to which chemical, primarily used in Teflon production, is known to cause two types of cancer, including kidney cancer?
Answer: Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a chemical used in Teflon production, is a known carcinogen that causes at least two types of cancer.
What proportion of cancer deaths are linked to diet, physical inactivity, and obesity?
Answer: Approximately 30-35%
These combined lifestyle factors are related to a significant portion, approximately 30-35%, of all cancer deaths.
Which of the following dietary practices is linked to gastric cancer?
Answer: A high-salt diet
A high-salt diet is specifically identified as a risk factor for developing gastric cancer.
What percentage of global cancer deaths are related to infectious diseases?
Answer: 18%
Globally, approximately 18% of cancer deaths are attributed to infectious diseases, with significant regional variation.
Which oncovirus is specifically linked to cervical cancer?
Answer: Human papillomavirus (HPV)
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the oncovirus most directly linked to the development of cervical cancer.
Which bacterial infection is associated with gastric carcinoma?
Answer: Helicobacter pylori
The bacterial infection Helicobacter pylori is a known cause of gastric carcinoma.
How does ionizing radiation interact with other cancer-causing agents?
Answer: It becomes a more potent source of cancer when combined with them.
Ionizing radiation can act synergistically with other carcinogens, becoming a more potent cancer-causing agent when combined with them, such as radon gas exposure combined with tobacco smoke.
What is the relationship between an individual's height and their cancer risk?
Answer: Taller individuals have an increased risk because they possess more cells.
Taller individuals have a greater number of cells in their bodies, which statistically increases the probability of a cancerous transformation occurring in one of those cells.
What is the primary mechanism by which asbestos causes cancer?
Answer: Primarily through its physical effects as mineral fibers.
Asbestos causes cancer, particularly mesothelioma, primarily through the physical effects of its mineral fibers in tissues, rather than through a chemical reaction.
A prolonged cough and unexplained weight loss are definitive signs that an individual has cancer.
Answer: False
While these symptoms can indicate cancer, they are not definitive and may be caused by various other medical conditions.
Cancer is typically easy to diagnose in its early stages because it produces distinct and specific symptoms immediately.
Answer: False
Early-stage cancer often produces no symptoms. When symptoms do appear, they are frequently non-specific and can be attributed to other conditions, making early diagnosis challenging.
Cachexia is a local symptom of cancer, characterized by a specific lump or mass at the tumor site.
Answer: False
Cachexia is a systemic symptom, not a local one. It is an inflammatory state that causes ongoing muscle loss and weakness throughout the body.
A definitive diagnosis of cancer typically requires the histopathological examination of a tissue sample by a pathologist.
Answer: True
While signs, symptoms, or screening may suggest cancer, a definitive diagnosis requires a pathologist to examine a tissue sample (biopsy).
Carcinoma is a type of cancer that originates from connective tissue.
Answer: False
Carcinoma originates from epithelial cells. Cancer originating from connective tissue is known as a sarcoma.
Which of the following is an example of a local symptom caused by cancer?
Answer: Difficulty swallowing due to esophageal cancer
Local symptoms arise directly from the tumor's mass or ulceration. Difficulty swallowing due to esophageal cancer is a direct physical effect, whereas weight loss, fatigue, and hypercalcemia are systemic symptoms.
What is the underlying cause of paraneoplastic syndromes?
Answer: Hormones or other molecules produced by the tumor.
Paraneoplastic syndromes are systemic symptoms caused by hormones or other molecules produced by the tumor itself, which then circulate and affect distant parts of the body.
What is the primary method for definitively diagnosing most cancers?
Answer: Examination of a tissue sample by a pathologist
While other methods are used for detection and assessment, a definitive diagnosis of cancer typically requires a pathologist to examine a tissue sample (biopsy).
How are cancers generally named based on their cell of origin?
Answer: Combining the organ name with suffixes like '-carcinoma' or '-sarcoma'.
Cancers are typically named using the Latin or Greek word for the organ of origin combined with a suffix indicating the cell type, such as '-carcinoma' for epithelial cells or '-sarcoma' for connective tissue.
Vitamin supplementation is a generally effective method for preventing cancer.
Answer: False
Vitamin supplementation does not appear to be effective at preventing cancer, and some supplements, like beta-carotene, have been shown to increase cancer rates in high-risk groups.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) strongly recommends routine screening for prostate cancer.
Answer: False
The USPSTF does not routinely recommend screening for prostate cancer, along with several other types like bladder, testicular, ovarian, and pancreatic cancer.
What proportion of common cancers are considered potentially preventable through modification of environmental factors?
Answer: Between 70% and 90%
A large majority, between 70% and 90% of common cancers, are attributed to environmental factors and are therefore considered potentially preventable.
Which of the following vaccines is available to prevent a cancer-causing virus?
Answer: Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine
The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine is designed to prevent infection by HPV, which is a primary cause of cervical cancer.
What is the primary purpose of cancer screening?
Answer: To detect cancer after it has formed but before any noticeable symptoms appear.
Cancer screening aims to detect cancer in its early, asymptomatic stages, which can lead to better treatment outcomes.
For which of the following cancers does the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) NOT routinely recommend screening?
Answer: Ovarian cancer
The USPSTF does not routinely recommend screening for ovarian cancer, along with bladder, testicular, pancreatic, and prostate cancers.
The average five-year survival rate for all cancer types in the United States is approximately 50%.
Answer: False
The average five-year survival rate for all cancer types in the United States is higher, at approximately 66%.
Targeted therapy broadly attacks all rapidly dividing cells, similar to traditional chemotherapy.
Answer: False
Unlike traditional chemotherapy, targeted therapy specifically targets molecular differences between cancer cells and normal cells, rather than broadly attacking all rapidly dividing cells.
To receive palliative care, patients must cease all therapies intended to treat their cancer.
Answer: False
Palliative care can be combined with cancer-treating therapies and does not require patients to cease treatments aimed at the cancer itself. This distinguishes it from hospice care.
How does traditional chemotherapy primarily function?
Answer: By killing cells that divide rapidly.
Traditional chemotherapy uses cytotoxic drugs that primarily work by killing cells that divide rapidly, a key characteristic of most cancer cells.
What is the primary role of surgery in cancer treatment?
Answer: To remove the entire tumor mass and for definitive diagnosis and staging.
Surgery is the primary treatment for most solid cancers, aiming to remove the tumor mass. It is also crucial for obtaining a biopsy for definitive diagnosis and staging.
What is a key difference between palliative care and hospice care?
Answer: Hospice care always involves stopping curative treatments, while palliative care can be combined with them.
A key distinction is that palliative care can be administered alongside curative treatments, whereas hospice care is typically for patients who have ceased treatments aimed at the cancer itself.
The word 'cancer' derives from the ancient Greek word 'karkinos', meaning 'crab', due to the observed resemblance of some tumors to crabs.
Answer: True
Ancient Greek physicians, such as Hippocrates, named the disease 'karkinos' because the appearance of a solid malignant tumor with swollen veins resembled a crab.
The earliest written record concerning cancer dates back to ancient Roman texts.
Answer: False
The earliest known written record of cancer is much older, found in the Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus from approximately 1600 BC.
The 'cancer personality' theory of the 1970s suggested that cancer was caused by a 'bad attitude' and could be treated with talk therapy.
Answer: True
This theory, a popular alternative treatment in the 1970s, posited that a 'cancer personality' caused the disease, leading to victim-blaming and increased patient anxiety.
The share of total healthcare expenditure dedicated to cancer treatment has significantly increased in recent decades.
Answer: False
Although absolute spending has increased, the share of total health expenditure for cancer treatment has remained relatively stable, around 5% in the US and 6% in Europe.
In the United States, cancer is recognized as a protected condition by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
Answer: True
The EEOC includes cancer as a protected condition to prevent discriminatory effects on workers and provides guidelines for accommodating employees with cancer.
It is highly likely that a single, universal 'cure for cancer' will be discovered in the near future.
Answer: False
This is unlikely because cancer is not a single disease but a class of many distinct diseases, each with different biological characteristics requiring varied treatment approaches.
What is the earliest written record concerning cancer?
Answer: The Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus from approximately 1600 BC.
The earliest known written record of cancer is found in the Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus, dating to about 1600 BC, which describes breast cancer.
Who first linked tobacco sniffing to nose cancer in 1761?
Answer: John Hill
The physician John Hill was the first to describe tobacco sniffing as a cause of nose cancer in 1761.
What is the 'just-world fallacy' in relation to cancer stigma?
Answer: The idea that blaming cancer on a patient's actions allows others to regain a sense of control.
The 'just-world fallacy' posits that people blame patients for their illness to regain a sense of control, stemming from the belief that bad things (like cancer) must be a punishment for bad choices.
What was the estimated total healthcare expenditure on cancer in the US in 2015?
Answer: $80.2 billion
In 2015, the total healthcare expenditure on cancer in the United States was estimated to be $80.2 billion.
Why is it unlikely that there will ever be a single, universal 'cure for cancer'?
Answer: Because cancer is not a single disease but a class of diseases.
A single cure is unlikely because 'cancer' is a term for a class of many distinct diseases, each with unique biological characteristics that require different treatment approaches.
What are the three most common childhood cancers?
Answer: Leukemia, brain tumors, lymphomas
The three most prevalent cancers in children are leukemia (34%), brain tumors (23%), and lymphomas (12%).
What challenges exist in diagnosing cancer in pregnant women?
Answer: Symptoms are often mistakenly attributed to normal pregnancy discomforts, leading to later discovery.
Diagnosing cancer during pregnancy is difficult because its symptoms can be mistaken for normal discomforts associated with pregnancy, often leading to a diagnosis at a later stage.
Which of the following is an example of a transmissible cancer found in non-human animals?
Answer: Canine transmissible venereal tumor (Sticker's sarcoma)
Canine transmissible venereal tumor, also known as Sticker's sarcoma, is a type of cancer that spreads between dogs through the transmission of the tumor cells themselves.