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The word 'chaitya' originates from the Sanskrit root 'cita,' meaning 'heaped-up,' and initially referred to mounds or funeral piles.
Answer: True
The etymological analysis confirms that 'chaitya' derives from the Sanskrit root 'cita,' signifying 'heaped-up,' and its original meaning encompassed mounds or funeral piles, evolving to denote sacred constructions.
What is the fundamental definition of a chaitya in the context of Indian religions?
Answer: A shrine, sanctuary, temple, or prayer hall.
The most fundamental definition of a 'chaitya' across Indian religions is a sacred space serving as a shrine, sanctuary, temple, or prayer hall.
What is the etymological root of the word 'chaitya', and what did it originally signify?
Answer: From 'cita' or 'ci' (heaped-up), signifying a mound or funeral pile.
The word 'chaitya' originates from the Sanskrit root 'cita' or 'ci,' meaning 'heaped-up,' and originally referred to mounds or funeral piles, evolving to signify sacred constructions.
In Vedic literature and early Hindu texts, what was the flexible meaning of 'chaitya'?
Answer: A 'piled up monument' or 'sacred tree,' encompassing 'holy place' or 'sanctuary.'
In Vedic and early Hindu texts, 'chaitya' possessed a flexible meaning, referring to 'piled up monuments,' sacred trees, or encompassing broader concepts like 'holy place' or 'sanctuary'.
A chaitya hall, particularly in Buddhism, is architecturally designed around a stupa, featuring a rounded apse and a high, curved roof.
Answer: True
This statement accurately describes the fundamental architectural characteristics of a Buddhist chaitya hall, emphasizing its design around a stupa, its apsidal form, and its distinctive roof structure.
A typical Buddhist chaitya hall features a rectangular layout with the stupa located at the entrance.
Answer: False
A typical Buddhist chaitya hall is characterized by an apsidal (rounded) layout at the stupa end, with the stupa situated at the opposite end from the entrance, not at the entrance itself.
Viharas are monastic dwellings, typically distinct from chaitya halls which serve as prayer spaces.
Answer: True
This statement correctly distinguishes the primary functions: viharas serve as residential and study spaces for monks, whereas chaitya halls are dedicated prayer spaces or shrines.
In Buddhism, what does 'chaitya' most precisely refer to, although it's also used more broadly?
Answer: The stupa itself, a monument typically containing relics.
While 'chaitya' can refer to the entire hall, in a precise Buddhist context, it most accurately denotes the stupa, the relic-containing monument that forms the focal point.
What is the central object of devotion around which a Buddhist chaitya hall is designed?
Answer: A stupa, typically containing relics.
The architectural design of a Buddhist chaitya hall is centered around a stupa, which traditionally houses relics and serves as the primary object of veneration and circumambulation.
How does a chaitya hall typically differ in function from a vihara in a Buddhist monastic complex?
Answer: Chaitya halls are shrines for worship, while viharas are residential and study spaces.
Chaitya halls function as sacred shrines for worship, whereas viharas serve as monastic dwellings providing spaces for monks' residence and study.
The earliest known chaitya halls date from the 2nd century CE.
Answer: False
The earliest known chaitya halls date significantly earlier, originating in the 3rd century BCE, with notable examples developing from the 2nd century BCE onwards.
Around the 1st century CE, the focus of devotion in chaitya halls began to shift from the stupa to images of Gautama Buddha.
Answer: True
Historical evidence indicates a significant transition around the 1st century CE, where the veneration of the stupa in chaitya halls gradually gave way to or was supplemented by the worship of Buddha images.
The last known rock-cut chaitya hall, Cave 10 at Ellora, was constructed in the 10th century CE.
Answer: False
The last known rock-cut chaitya hall, Ellora Cave 10, is dated to the first half of the 7th century CE, not the 10th century CE.
In later chaitya halls, the stupa was consistently replaced by large seated Buddha statues as the sole object of veneration.
Answer: False
While Buddha images became increasingly prominent, the stupa was not consistently replaced as the sole object of veneration; rather, images were often integrated with or placed before the stupa, reflecting an evolution rather than a complete substitution.
What significant shift in Buddhist devotional practices is reflected in chaitya halls around the 1st century CE?
Answer: A move from stupa veneration to the veneration of Buddha images.
Around the 1st century CE, a notable shift occurred in Buddhist devotional practices, evidenced in chaitya halls by a move from primary veneration of the stupa towards the increasing importance and worship of Buddha images.
What happened to the function of the chaitya hall by the 7th century CE, as indicated by the last known rock-cut example at Ellora?
Answer: Its function was largely taken over by the vihara, which developed shrine rooms.
By the 7th century CE, as evidenced by sites like Ellora, the functional role of the chaitya hall began to diminish, with the vihara evolving to incorporate shrine rooms and becoming the primary space for Buddhist assemblies.
The image of the stupa inside Ellora Cave 10 illustrates which development in Buddhist architecture?
Answer: The integration of a large Buddha statue into the front of the stupa.
The stupa within Ellora Cave 10 prominently features a large Buddha statue integrated into its front, illustrating a key development where Buddha images became central elements in Buddhist architecture, often augmenting or overshadowing the stupa.
What does the image of the stupa inside Cave 10 at Ellora indicate about later Buddhist architecture?
Answer: The Buddha image became integrated with or dominant over the stupa.
The stupa in Ellora Cave 10, featuring a large Buddha statue, indicates a significant trend in later Buddhist architecture where the Buddha image became integrated with or dominant over the traditional stupa.
The curving, ribbed ceilings in chaitya halls are a deliberate imitation of traditional wooden construction techniques.
Answer: True
The characteristic curving, ribbed ceilings found in many chaitya halls are indeed designed to replicate the appearance and construction methods of earlier wooden architectural forms.
The aisles and nave in a chaitya hall are primarily designed to accommodate monks' living quarters.
Answer: False
The aisles and nave in a chaitya hall are architecturally designed to facilitate the ritual practice of circumambulation (*parikrama*) around the central stupa, not for monastic accommodation.
The 'chaitya arch,' also known as a gavaksha, is an architectural element found framing the main entrance of chaitya halls.
Answer: False
The 'chaitya arch' or gavaksha motif is typically found framing the large horseshoe-shaped window situated above the main entrance of chaitya halls, rather than framing the entrance itself.
In early rock-cut chaityas, the stupa was surrounded by pillars within a circular chamber, separate from the rectangular hall for devotees.
Answer: True
Early rock-cut chaitya designs often featured a distinct circular chamber housing the stupa, surrounded by pillars, with an adjacent rectangular hall for worshippers, representing an earlier stage of development before integration.
The facade of the Bhaja Caves suggests that early Indian rock-cut architecture often mimicked multi-story mansions.
Answer: True
The elaborate facade of the Bhaja Caves, carved to resemble a multi-story building with balconies and windows, indicates that early Indian rock-cut architecture frequently imitated the appearance of contemporary wooden mansions.
The timber ribs found in the Karla Caves are significant as they are modern additions meant to reinforce the stone structure.
Answer: False
The timber ribs found in the Karla Caves are original elements from the period of construction, serving as direct evidence of the imitation of wooden construction techniques in stone architecture, not modern reinforcements.
How do the ceilings of early chaitya halls visually represent their architectural origins?
Answer: They feature curving, ribbed designs that imitate wooden architecture.
The distinctive curving and ribbed designs of early chaitya hall ceilings are a direct visual representation of their origins, imitating the construction techniques and aesthetics of traditional wooden architecture.
What ritual practice is facilitated by the architectural layout of aisles and a nave in a chaitya hall?
Answer: The ritual of circumambulation (*parikrama*) around the stupa.
The presence of aisles and a nave within a chaitya hall is specifically designed to enable devotees to perform the ritual of circumambulation (*parikrama* or *pradakhshina*) around the central stupa.
What is the 'chaitya arch' motif, also known as a gavaksha or chandrashala?
Answer: An architectural element framing the large window above the entrance of chaitya halls.
The 'chaitya arch' (gavaksha or chandrashala) is a distinctive architectural motif that frames the prominent window located above the entrance of chaitya halls.
What architectural feature of the Bhaja Caves chaitya hall is notable for imitating wooden construction?
Answer: The original wooden ribs on the barrel-vaulted ceiling.
The Bhaja Caves chaitya hall features original wooden ribs on its barrel-vaulted ceiling, a significant detail demonstrating the imitation of timber construction techniques in stone architecture.
What does the facade of the Bhaja Caves suggest about early Indian rock-cut architecture?
Answer: It often mimicked the appearance of multi-story wooden buildings.
The facade of the Bhaja Caves, intricately carved to resemble a multi-story mansion, suggests that early Indian rock-cut architecture frequently emulated the forms and aesthetics of contemporary wooden structures.
What architectural element, often repeated decoratively, originated from framing the window above the entrance of chaitya halls?
Answer: The Chaitya arch (Gavaksha).
The 'Chaitya arch,' also known as the gavaksha, originated from the decorative framing of the window above the entrance of chaitya halls and was subsequently repeated as a motif in later architectural styles.
In Jainism and Hinduism, the term 'chaitya' specifically denotes a Buddhist prayer hall built around a stupa.
Answer: False
While 'chaitya' is most commonly associated with Buddhist prayer halls, its usage in Jainism and Hinduism is broader, referring to temples, sanctuaries, or sacred monuments in general, not exclusively Buddhist structures.
Early chaitya halls reflected Hinduism's early emphasis on communal religious practices, contrasting with Buddhism's individualistic approach.
Answer: False
Conversely, early chaitya halls, designed for communal worship and rituals like *uposatha*, reflected Buddhism's emphasis on communal practices, contrasting with the more individualistic approach often seen in early Hindu worship.
The Trivikrama Temple in Ter, Maharashtra, was originally a Hindu temple that later influenced Buddhist chaitya design.
Answer: False
The Trivikrama Temple in Ter, Maharashtra, was originally a Buddhist chaityagriha, representing an early freestanding apsidal structure, before its later conversion into a Hindu temple.
The Kapoteswara temple at Chezarla is a Hindu temple that retained its original Buddhist apsidal form without modification.
Answer: False
While the Kapoteswara temple at Chezarla was converted from a Buddhist chaityagriha, its chamber has straight ends, although it retains a rounded brick vault roof, indicating adaptation rather than unmodified retention of the apsidal form.
Architectural parallels between Indian chaityas and traditional Toda huts in the Nilgiri Hills are noted, particularly in roof shapes.
Answer: True
Scholars have observed architectural similarities between Indian chaityas and the roof structures of traditional Toda huts, suggesting potential shared influences or design echoes.
In Nepal, a 'chaitya' refers to a large, freestanding Buddhist temple complex housing monks.
Answer: False
In Nepal, a 'chaitya' typically refers to a monument, often stupa-like and placed on a plinth, constructed in memory of the deceased, rather than a large temple complex housing monks.
In classical Cambodian art, chaityas function as boundary markers for sacred sites, often pillar-like and topped with a stupa.
Answer: True
Classical Cambodian art utilizes chaityas as significant boundary markers for sacred sites, frequently appearing as pillar-like structures crowned with a stupa.
Scholars have proposed that Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs influenced Indian chaitya designs, suggesting a possible transfer of architectural concepts.
Answer: True
The structural similarities between 4th century BCE Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs and later Indian chaityas have led scholars to propose a potential influence or transfer of architectural concepts between these regions.
Beyond India, where is the term 'chaitya' used to refer to local styles of stupa-like monuments?
Answer: Nepal, Cambodia, and Indonesia.
The term 'chaitya' is employed in regions such as Nepal, Cambodia, and Indonesia to designate local variations of stupa-like monuments, extending its usage beyond the Indian subcontinent.
According to K.L. Chanchreek, what did 'caitya' refer to in early Jain literature?
Answer: Any temple structure, including 'ayatanas' or temples where monks resided.
K.L. Chanchreek's analysis indicates that in early Jain literature, 'caitya' broadly encompassed 'ayatanas' (monastic residences) and temple structures, signifying any temple edifice.
How did the Kapoteswara temple at Chezarla adapt Buddhist architectural forms?
Answer: By constructing a rounded brick vault roof using corbelling, despite a straight chamber.
The Kapoteswara temple at Chezarla, a Hindu structure adapted from a Buddhist chaityagriha, features a rounded brick vault roof constructed via corbelling, demonstrating an adaptation of Buddhist architectural elements.
What architectural similarity is noted between Indian chaityas and Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs from the 4th century BCE?
Answer: Both exhibited structural similarities, suggesting influence or a common source.
Scholars have identified structural similarities between Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs and Indian chaityas, leading to hypotheses about potential architectural influence or a shared ancestral design tradition.
How are chaityas utilized in classical Cambodian art?
Answer: As boundary markers for sacred sites, often pillar-like with stupas.
In classical Cambodian art, chaityas serve a functional role as boundary markers for sacred sites, typically appearing as pillar-like forms topped with a stupa.
Surviving examples of early chaitya architecture are predominantly freestanding wooden structures.
Answer: False
While early chaitya halls may have been inspired by wooden structures, the majority of surviving examples are found in rock-cut architecture, as freestanding wooden structures from that period have largely not endured.
The Barabar Caves, particularly the Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves, are considered prototypes for later Buddhist chaitya halls.
Answer: True
The rock-cut chambers in the Barabar Caves, dating to the 3rd century BCE, are widely regarded by scholars as foundational prototypes that influenced the subsequent development of Buddhist chaitya hall architecture.
The Bhaja Caves chaitya hall, dating to the 2nd century BCE, is noted for its polished walls and original wooden facade.
Answer: False
The Bhaja Caves chaitya hall, while featuring polished walls and an apsidal plan, is noted for its facade imitating a multi-story mansion and its original wooden ribs on the ceiling, not an original wooden facade.
The Karla Caves, Ajanta Caves, and Ellora Caves are minor sites with few examples of rock-cut chaitya halls.
Answer: False
The Karla Caves, Ajanta Caves, and Ellora Caves are among the most significant and renowned sites in India, featuring numerous important examples of rock-cut chaitya halls.
The Bairat Temple, constructed in the 3rd century BCE, was a freestanding structure featuring a central stupa surrounded by octagonal wooden pillars.
Answer: True
The Bairat Temple, dating to the 3rd century BCE, is recognized as an early example of a freestanding chaitya hall, characterized by its circular design with surrounding octagonal wooden pillars and a central stupa.
The Durga temple in Aihole represents a late stage of the freestanding chaitya hall temple, featuring an apsidal design.
Answer: True
The Durga temple in Aihole is indeed considered a significant example representing a late phase of the freestanding chaitya hall temple tradition, characterized by its apsidal layout.
The relief of a circular chaitya hall at Bharhut, dating to circa 100 BCE, provides insight into the appearance of these structures.
Answer: True
The relief carving found at Bharhut, depicting a circular chaitya hall from approximately 100 BCE, serves as valuable artistic evidence offering insights into the architectural forms of chaitya halls during that period.
The structural chaitya at Lalitgiri in Odisha provides evidence of freestanding chaitya structures in that region.
Answer: True
Archaeological findings at Lalitgiri, Odisha, including a structural chaitya, offer concrete evidence for the existence and form of freestanding chaitya structures in that geographical area.
What is the primary characteristic of the majority of early surviving chaitya architecture?
Answer: Rock-cut architecture.
The vast majority of early chaitya architecture that has survived to the present day is characterized by its rock-cut construction, excavated directly from natural rock formations.
Which of the following is considered a prototype for later Buddhist chaitya halls?
Answer: The Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves (Barabar Caves).
The Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves within the Barabar Caves complex are widely recognized by scholars as significant prototypes that influenced the architectural development of later Buddhist chaitya halls.
Which of these is NOT listed as a significant site for rock-cut chaitya halls in India?
Answer: Hampi Complex
The Hampi Complex is primarily known for its Vijayanagara-era ruins and Hindu temples, not for significant rock-cut chaitya halls, unlike the Karla, Ajanta, and Ellora Caves.
The Bairat Temple, dating to the 3rd century BCE, is significant as an example of what type of structure?
Answer: A freestanding chaitya hall.
The Bairat Temple, dating from the 3rd century BCE, is historically significant as an early example of a freestanding chaitya hall structure.
What is the architectural significance of the Trivikrama Temple in Ter, Maharashtra?
Answer: It was originally a Buddhist chaityagriha and is the oldest structure in Maharashtra.
The Trivikrama Temple in Ter, Maharashtra, is architecturally significant as it was originally a Buddhist chaityagriha and is considered the oldest standing structure in the state.
The Durga temple in Aihole is considered significant because it represents:
Answer: A late stage of the freestanding chaitya hall temple.
The Durga temple in Aihole is significant as it exemplifies a late phase in the evolution of the freestanding chaitya hall temple tradition, characterized by its apsidal design.
Which of the following is an example of a freestanding chaitya hall mentioned in the text?
Answer: The Bairat Temple.
The Bairat Temple, dating to the 3rd century BCE, is cited as an example of an early freestanding chaitya hall structure.