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A language is classified as 'cross-border' if its speaker population resides in territories that span across the internationally recognized borders of two or more countries.
Answer: True
This statement accurately defines a cross-border language as one whose speaker population is geographically distributed across international boundaries.
It is universally true that all international languages are also classified as cross-border languages.
Answer: False
While all cross-border languages are inherently international (spoken in more than one nation), the converse is not true; an international language is not necessarily cross-border if its speakers are not situated across contiguous international boundaries.
The fundamental requirement for a language to be considered cross-border is its presence on both sides of an international border.
Answer: True
This statement correctly identifies the essential criterion: a language must be spoken by populations residing across an international boundary to be classified as cross-border.
The terms 'world language' or 'shared language' are considered more fitting when a language's distribution spans internal borders within a single country.
Answer: False
These terms are more appropriate for languages spoken across international borders between different countries, especially when those countries do not share a common border. The term 'cross-border' specifically implies spanning international boundaries.
Many cross-border languages existed before the establishment of modern state borders, as exemplified by the Lunda language community.
Answer: True
Indeed, numerous cross-border language communities, such as the Lunda in southern-central Africa, predated the modern political boundaries that now divide them.
What is the core definition of a cross-border language?
Answer: A language spoken by a population residing in areas that span the borders of two or more countries.
The fundamental definition of a cross-border language involves a speaker population whose territory extends across the internationally recognized borders of two or more nations.
Many cross-border languages existed before the establishment of modern state borders, as exemplified by the Lunda language community.
Answer: The Lunda language community in Africa
Indeed, numerous cross-border language communities, such as the Lunda in southern-central Africa, predated the modern political boundaries that now divide them.
The primary criteria for classifying cross-border languages are the extent of the geographical area they encompass and the number of speakers they possess.
Answer: True
Indeed, the classification of cross-border languages hinges upon two principal metrics: the geographical expanse they cover and the size of their speaker population.
Limited international languages are invariably confined to small geographical areas within a single country.
Answer: True
The definition of a limited international language specifies that it is confined to a relatively small geographical area, distinguishing it from general international languages.
Symmetrical border languages are characterized by a significant disparity in the size of the linguistic groups on either side of the border.
Answer: False
Symmetrical border languages are defined by linguistic groups of similar size on both sides of the border, whereas asymmetry implies a significant difference in group sizes.
Asymmetrical border languages feature roughly equal numbers of speakers on both sides of the border.
Answer: False
Asymmetrical border languages are characterized by a substantial difference in the size of the linguistic groups residing on either side of the border, unlike symmetrical languages.
General international languages are characterized by their confinement to small geographical areas within a country.
Answer: False
General international languages are spread across significant geographical areas, potentially regional or continental, and hold official status in at least one country, contrasting with the confinement of limited international languages.
Which two primary criteria are used to classify cross-border languages?
Answer: Geographical area covered and number of speakers.
The classification of cross-border languages is primarily based on two key metrics: the geographical extent they cover and the size of their speaker population.
How are cross-border languages categorized based on their geographical scope?
Answer: Limited International and General International
Based on their geographical scope, cross-border languages are categorized into two types: limited international languages and general international languages.
What distinguishes a 'limited international language' from a 'general international language' in the context of cross-border languages?
Answer: Limited languages are confined to small areas, while general languages are spread widely and hold official status in at least one country.
A limited international language is geographically restricted, whereas a general international language is more widely distributed and possesses official status in at least one nation.
The classification of cross-border languages based on speaker population distinguishes between:
Answer: Symmetrical and Asymmetrical
Based on the relative size of speaker groups across borders, cross-border languages are classified as either symmetrical or asymmetrical.
Which characteristic defines a symmetrical border language?
Answer: It is spoken by linguistic groups of similar size on both sides of the border.
Symmetrical border languages are defined by the presence of linguistic groups of comparable size on either side of an international border.
Gagauz is cited as an example of a language that is both symmetrical and international, spoken widely across Europe.
Answer: False
The source identifies Gagauz as a symmetrical and limited cross-border language, not an international one spoken widely across Europe.
German is classified as a symmetrical and international cross-border language due to its official status and widespread use across multiple countries.
Answer: True
German exemplifies a symmetrical and international cross-border language, holding official status and being spoken across numerous countries, notably Austria and Germany.
Hungarian is primarily spoken as a majority language in countries bordering Hungary.
Answer: False
Hungarian is spoken as a minority language in countries bordering Hungary, such as Romania and Slovakia, rather than being the majority language in those bordering nations.
Portuguese is classified as a cross-border language because it is spoken in Portugal and Brazil.
Answer: False
Portuguese is considered an international language due to its presence in multiple nations, but it is not classified as a cross-border language because these nations generally do not share contiguous territorial borders.
English became a cross-border language primarily due to colonial expansion and historical border formations.
Answer: True
The historical expansion of the British Empire and subsequent border developments are indeed cited as the primary factors contributing to English becoming a cross-border language.
Vietnamese and Japanese are cited as prime examples of cross-border languages due to their widespread use across East Asia.
Answer: False
The source material indicates that languages such as Vietnamese and Japanese are generally not classified as cross-border languages because they are typically confined within the borders of a single nation, rather than spanning international boundaries.
Chinese is considered a cross-border language due to its official status in China, Taiwan, and Singapore.
Answer: False
While Chinese is an international language with official status in multiple countries (China, Taiwan, Singapore), it is not classified as a cross-border language because these nations do not share territorial continuity, a prerequisite for cross-border classification.
An exception to the rule that cross-border languages usually have native speakers in border regions are international lingua francas, such as Swahili.
Answer: True
International lingua francas like Swahili can function as cross-border languages without necessarily having large native speaker populations concentrated in border regions, serving instead as a common means of communication.
Dutch is an example of a cross-border language that facilitates cultural exchange between Belgium and the Netherlands.
Answer: True
Dutch serves as an example of a cross-border language facilitating cultural exchange, enabling the dissemination of cultural products between Belgium and the Netherlands.
Ojibwe/Chippewa is spoken across the border between Canada and the United States.
Answer: True
Ojibwe/Chippewa is listed among the indigenous languages that span the border between Canada and the United States.
Spanglish is recognized as a cross-border language situation existing between the United States and Mexico.
Answer: True
The text lists Spanglish as one of the cross-border languages found in the region straddling the United States-Mexico border.
Haitian Creole is spoken exclusively within Haiti and is therefore not classified as a cross-border language.
Answer: False
Haitian Creole is identified as a cross-border language spoken between Haiti and the Dominican Republic, indicating its presence beyond the borders of Haiti alone.
Central Aymara is spoken across the border between Peru and Bolivia.
Answer: True
Central Aymara is listed among the cross-border languages spoken by indigenous groups whose territories extend across the border between Peru and Bolivia.
Gagauz is cited as an example of which type of cross-border language?
Answer: Symmetrical and Limited
Gagauz is presented as an instance of a symmetrical and limited cross-border language, characterized by its relatively small speaker base and balanced distribution across borders.
Which language is given as an example of an asymmetrical and limited cross-border language with varying official recognition?
Answer: Basque
Basque is cited as an example of an asymmetrical and limited cross-border language, noting its official recognition in parts of Spain but not in the French Basque Country.
Hungarian is an example of which category of cross-border language?
Answer: Asymmetrical and International
Hungarian is presented as an example of an asymmetrical and international cross-border language, spoken as a minority language in several countries bordering Hungary.
Portuguese is considered an international language but not a cross-border language primarily because:
Answer: The countries where it is spoken lack common territorial borders.
Portuguese is classified as an international language due to its presence in multiple nations, but it is not considered a cross-border language because these nations generally do not share contiguous territorial borders, a key criterion for cross-border classification.
Which of the following is NOT considered a cross-border language in the provided text?
Answer: Japanese (between Japan and its neighbors)
The text specifies that languages like Japanese are generally not considered cross-border languages because they are typically confined within the borders of a single country, lacking the essential characteristic of spanning international boundaries.
Which of the following is listed as a cross-border language between Canada and the United States?
Answer: Seneca
The source material explicitly lists Seneca as one of the cross-border languages spoken along the Canada-United States border, alongside English, French, and various indigenous languages.
Which language pair represents a cross-border language situation between Haiti and the Dominican Republic?
Answer: Haitian Creole
Haitian Creole is identified as the cross-border language spoken between Haiti and the Dominican Republic, reflecting the linguistic connections and population movements across their shared island.
According to the source, what is the main reason Japanese is generally NOT considered a cross-border language?
Answer: It is confined to the borders of a single country.
The primary reason Japanese is typically not classified as a cross-border language is its confinement within the territorial boundaries of Japan, lacking speakers across international frontiers.
A language spoken by a large absolute number of people is always considered sociolinguistically more important than a minority language.
Answer: False
Sociolinguistic importance is often determined by the proportion of speakers within a population, not solely by the absolute number, meaning a minority language can hold greater significance in its context.
Hausa holds greater sociolinguistic importance in Niger than in Nigeria because of its higher proportion relative to the total population in Niger.
Answer: True
This is correct; despite fewer absolute speakers in Niger compared to Nigeria, Hausa's higher percentage of the population in Niger grants it greater sociolinguistic importance there.
The primary economic function of cross-border languages is to facilitate trade and exchange between nations.
Answer: True
Facilitating trade and economic exchange between countries is identified as the principal economic role played by cross-border languages.
Cross-border languages have no role in the political sphere, which is reserved for major international languages.
Answer: False
Cross-border languages can indeed serve political functions, either formally or informally, by facilitating communication and governance across national divides.
Cross-border languages are entirely excluded from roles in religious outreach or evangelization.
Answer: False
This statement is factually incorrect. Cross-border languages can function as instruments for religious outreach and evangelization, as exemplified by the Kimbanguist church utilizing Kikongo across national borders.
Pashto speakers crossing into Pakistan from Afghanistan is an example of cross-border languages providing refuge.
Answer: True
The movement of Pashto speakers across the Afghanistan-Pakistan border illustrates how cross-border languages can facilitate refuge for individuals fleeing difficult circumstances.
Smuggling activities are unrelated to the linguistic communities living across borders.
Answer: False
Smuggling activities are often linked to linguistic minorities residing across borders, who may leverage their position for economic opportunities.
What is a potential negative consequence of widespread international cross-border languages like German?
Answer: Increased risk of extinction for minority languages.
Widespread international languages, due to their dominance and official status, can contribute to the decline and potential extinction of minority languages within their sphere of influence.
Why is the proportion of speakers more important than the absolute number for sociolinguistic importance?
Answer: A higher percentage signifies greater relevance and integration within the society.
Sociolinguistic importance is often tied to the proportion of speakers within a population, as a higher percentage indicates greater relevance and integration of the language within that society, irrespective of the absolute number of speakers.
What is the primary economic role of cross-border languages?
Answer: Facilitating trade and exchange.
Facilitating trade and economic exchange between countries is identified as the principal economic role played by cross-border languages.
How can cross-border languages contribute to cultural exchange?
Answer: By enabling the dissemination of cultural products like books and films.
Cross-border languages facilitate cultural exchange by enabling the transmission of cultural products, such as literature and media, across national boundaries.
The example of Pashto speakers moving from Afghanistan to Pakistan illustrates which function of cross-border languages?
Answer: Serving as a refuge.
The movement of Pashto speakers across the Afghanistan-Pakistan border illustrates how cross-border languages can facilitate refuge for individuals fleeing difficult circumstances.
The status of a cross-border language like Kurdish can change significantly due to political developments.
Answer: True
Political developments, such as official recognition in specific regions, can indeed alter the classification and status of cross-border languages, as exemplified by the case of Kurdish.
Border control regimes are generally perceived by local populations as facilitators of cross-border integration.
Answer: False
Border control regimes are often viewed by local populations as symbols of state sovereignty that create divisions and alienation, rather than as facilitators of integration.
Shared ethnolinguistic identities that cross national borders can encourage people to disregard or overcome these borders.
Answer: True
Ethnolinguistic identities transcending state borders can indeed foster stronger connections between divided communities and promote a desire to overcome national divisions.
Differing codifications of a cross-border language on opposite sides of a border simplify language planning efforts.
Answer: False
Divergent codifications, such as distinct orthographic norms, complicate standardization and increase the complexity and cost of language planning for cross-border languages.
Linguistic assimilation, in the context of cross-border languages, involves the decline of dominant languages in favor of minority ones.
Answer: False
Linguistic assimilation typically involves the decline of less prestigious or minority languages due to the influence and dominance of more prestigious languages.
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages serves as a notable example of policy initiatives aimed at safeguarding regional and minority languages.
Answer: True
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages is indeed cited as a measure designed to protect and promote regional and minority languages, often including those that function across borders.
The status of the Kurdish language shifted from being classified as 'limited' to 'international' following its official recognition in Iraq.
Answer: False
The source indicates that Kurdish transitioned from a symmetrical and limited status to an asymmetrical and limited status after gaining official recognition in Iraqi Kurdistan, not from limited to international.
How did the Kurdish language's status change according to the source?
Answer: From symmetrical and limited to asymmetrical and limited after gaining official status in Iraqi Kurdistan.
The source details that Kurdish transitioned from a symmetrical and limited classification to an asymmetrical and limited one following its official recognition in Iraqi Kurdistan.
What is the significance of ethnolinguistic identities that cross national borders?
Answer: They are usually ignored by governments and can foster unity across borders.
Ethnolinguistic identities transcending state borders can foster stronger connections between divided communities and promote a desire to overcome national divisions, often being overlooked by governmental structures.
What challenge arises from the differing codification of cross-border languages on either side of a border?
Answer: It complicates standardization and increases the cost of language planning.
Divergent codifications, such as distinct orthographic norms, complicate standardization and increase the complexity and cost of language planning for cross-border languages.
What does linguistic assimilation mean in the context of cross-border languages?
Answer: The decline of less prestigious languages due to the influence of dominant ones.
Linguistic assimilation typically involves the decline of less prestigious or minority languages due to the influence and dominance of more prestigious languages.
Within a cross-border region, passive bilinguals are characterized by fluent speaking ability in the cross-border language coupled with limited comprehension.
Answer: False
The definition of passive bilinguals in this context refers to individuals who can comprehend the cross-border language but possess limited proficiency in speaking it, not the other way around.
In a cross-border region, individuals identified as 'official language or lingua franca monolinguals' exclusively speak the dominant national language.
Answer: True
This statement accurately defines official language or lingua franca monolinguals within a cross-border context, referring to those who speak only the dominant national language.
Active bilinguals in a cross-border context are individuals who speak only the dominant national language.
Answer: False
Active bilinguals are defined as individuals who speak two languages, such as the cross-border language and the dominant national language, not those who speak only one.
In the context of cross-border languages, who are defined as 'passive bilinguals'?
Answer: Individuals who can understand the cross-border language but speak it poorly.
Passive bilinguals are those individuals capable of understanding a cross-border language, whether spoken or written, but who exhibit limited ability to produce it actively.
Current projections suggest that the vast majority of the world's languages are expected to survive the next century, including most cross-border languages.
Answer: False
Contrary to the statement, current linguistic projections indicate a high risk of extinction for a significant percentage of the world's languages, potentially threatening many cross-border languages as well.
What is the projected future for languages globally, and how does this impact cross-border languages?
Answer: Around 90% of languages may become extinct within a century, threatening cross-border languages.
Current projections indicate a severe threat to global linguistic diversity, with estimates suggesting that up to 90% of languages could disappear within a century, posing a significant risk to the survival of many cross-border languages.