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The Supreme Court decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* (1954) upheld the 'separate but equal' doctrine for public schools.
Answer: False
The Supreme Court decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* (1954) explicitly overturned the 'separate but equal' doctrine, declaring state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
The *Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education* ruling affirmed that federal courts could use busing as a strategy to achieve racial balance in schools.
Answer: True
The Supreme Court's decision in *Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education* (1971) validated the use of busing as a judicial remedy to achieve racial integration and balance within public school systems.
The Supreme Court's decision in *Green v. County School Board of New Kent County* found 'freedom of choice' plans to be an effective method for achieving desegregation.
Answer: False
The Supreme Court's decision in *Green v. County School Board of New Kent County* (1968) rejected 'freedom of choice' plans as insufficient for desegregation, mandating that districts eliminate racial discrimination 'root and branch'.
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision expanded the scope of busing by allowing federal courts to order inter-district desegregation plans even without proof of intentional segregation in suburban districts.
Answer: False
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision (1974) limited the scope of busing, ruling that federal courts could not order inter-district desegregation plans unless intentional segregation was proven in the suburban districts involved.
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision encouraged suburban areas to participate in court-ordered integration plans.
Answer: False
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision limited inter-district busing remedies, making it more difficult to compel suburban districts to participate in integration plans unless intentional segregation was proven, thereby discouraging broad suburban participation.
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision implied that Northern suburban school districts were automatically bound by desegregation principles regardless of intent.
Answer: False
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision implied that Northern suburban school districts were not automatically bound by desegregation principles unless intentional segregation policies could be proven, thus limiting the reach of desegregation orders.
Which Supreme Court case declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional?
Answer: Brown v. Board of Education
The landmark Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional was *Brown v. Board of Education* in 1954.
What was the significance of the *Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education* decision regarding busing?
Answer: It affirmed that federal courts could order busing as a tool to achieve racial balance in schools.
The *Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education* decision (1971) was significant because it affirmed the authority of federal courts to order busing as a means to achieve racial balance in public schools.
How did the *Green v. County School Board of New Kent County* decision (1968) impact desegregation plans?
Answer: It mandated that school districts eliminate racial discrimination 'root and branch'.
The *Green v. County School Board of New Kent County* decision (1968) rejected 'freedom of choice' plans and mandated that school districts eliminate racial discrimination 'root and branch,' pushing for more comprehensive desegregation.
What limitation did the *Milliken v. Bradley* decision (1974) place on busing remedies?
Answer: It allowed inter-district busing only if suburban districts intentionally practiced segregation.
The *Milliken v. Bradley* decision limited inter-district busing remedies, stipulating that such plans could only be ordered if it was proven that suburban districts had intentionally practiced segregation.
Desegregation busing, or integrated busing, was primarily designed to transport students to schools closer to their homes to reduce travel time.
Answer: False
The primary objective of desegregation busing was to address racial imbalances by transporting students to schools with different racial compositions, not necessarily to schools closer to their homes.
The *Brown II* ruling directed school districts to desegregate immediately and without any delay.
Answer: False
The *Brown II* ruling in 1955 directed school districts to desegregate 'with all deliberate speed,' a phrase that allowed for considerable discretion and led to slow implementation and resistance.
The term 'forced busing' was used by proponents of desegregation to highlight the necessity of court-ordered transportation.
Answer: False
'Forced busing' was a term primarily used by opponents of desegregation to imply a lack of local control and parental choice, rather than by proponents to emphasize necessity.
The NAACP argued in *Kelly v. Clark County School District* that housing patterns did not reflect lingering segregation and that busing was unnecessary.
Answer: False
In *Kelly v. Clark County School District*, the NAACP argued that housing patterns did reflect lingering segregation and that busing was a necessary measure to address de facto segregation.
The phrase 'all deliberate speed' in *Brown II* mandated immediate and swift implementation of desegregation plans.
Answer: False
The phrase 'all deliberate speed' from the *Brown II* ruling allowed for considerable latitude and led to slow implementation, rather than mandating immediate and swift desegregation.
Unitary status allows school districts to continue operating under court-ordered desegregation policies indefinitely.
Answer: False
Unitary status signifies that a school district has practically eliminated legally enforced segregation, thereby allowing it to be released from court-ordered desegregation policies, not continue them indefinitely.
What was the central purpose of desegregation busing in the United States?
Answer: To transport students to schools with different racial compositions to address racial imbalances.
The central purpose of desegregation busing was to address racial imbalances by transporting students to schools with diverse racial compositions, thereby promoting integration.
What was the primary outcome of the *Brown II* ruling in 1955?
Answer: It directed school districts to desegregate 'with all deliberate speed'.
The *Brown II* ruling directed school districts to desegregate 'with all deliberate speed,' a phrase that allowed for considerable discretion and led to slow implementation.
What is 'unitary status' in the context of school desegregation?
Answer: A status signifying that legally enforced segregation has been practically eliminated.
Unitary status signifies that a school district has successfully eliminated legally enforced segregation from its dual school systems, allowing for the cessation of court-ordered desegregation policies.
The term 'forced busing' was controversial primarily because:
Answer: It implied a lack of local control and parental choice.
The term 'forced busing' was controversial primarily because it suggested an imposition by judicial authority, infringing upon local control and parental autonomy in educational decisions.
What did the NAACP argue in the *Kelly v. Clark County School District* case?
Answer: That the school district needed to address de facto segregation.
In *Kelly v. Clark County School District*, the NAACP argued that housing patterns reflected lingering segregation and that the school district needed to address de facto segregation through integration measures.
What was the significance of the phrase 'all deliberate speed' from the *Brown II* decision?
Answer: It allowed considerable latitude and led to slow implementation.
The phrase 'all deliberate speed' from the *Brown II* decision allowed school districts considerable latitude, leading to slow implementation and widespread resistance rather than immediate desegregation.
Prior to World War II, racial segregation in U.S. public schools was primarily de facto, resulting from residential patterns.
Answer: False
Prior to World War II, racial segregation in U.S. public schools was often de jure, mandated by law in Southern and border states, in addition to de facto segregation resulting from residential patterns in other regions.
The Second Great Migration, beginning in 1940, involved the movement of African Americans from the North to the rural South, altering urban school demographics.
Answer: False
The Second Great Migration, commencing around 1940, involved the movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West, significantly altering urban school demographics.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 provided federal funding to school districts that resisted desegregation orders.
Answer: False
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 authorized the federal government to withhold funding from school districts that failed to comply with desegregation orders, rather than providing funding for resistance.
The 1966 Coleman Report found that funding disparities were the primary reason for the educational achievement gap between Black and white students.
Answer: False
The 1966 Coleman Report found that socially disadvantaged Black children benefited significantly from learning in mixed-race classrooms, suggesting that integration, facilitated by busing, was crucial for educational equality, rather than solely funding disparities.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 empowered the federal government to cut off funding to school districts that refused to comply with desegregation orders.
Answer: True
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 empowered the federal government to withdraw funding from school districts that did not comply with desegregation orders, providing a significant incentive for compliance.
Opponents of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 argued that it explicitly authorized busing based on race to achieve quotas.
Answer: False
Opponents of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 argued it would lead to forced busing for quotas, but proponents maintained the Act did not authorize such measures, and amendments were proposed to explicitly prohibit race-based busing.
The Coleman Report concluded that socially disadvantaged Black children learned best in racially isolated classrooms.
Answer: False
The Coleman Report concluded that socially disadvantaged Black children benefited significantly from learning in mixed-race classrooms, supporting the rationale for integration efforts.
How did the Second Great Migration influence school demographics in Northern and Western cities?
Answer: It resulted in larger Black populations in urban centers, changing school racial compositions.
The Second Great Migration led to a significant increase in the Black population in Northern and Western urban centers, consequently altering the racial composition and demographics of their public schools.
How did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 contribute to desegregation efforts?
Answer: It authorized the federal government to withhold funding from non-compliant districts.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 contributed significantly by authorizing the federal government to withhold funding from school districts that failed to comply with desegregation orders.
What did the 1966 Coleman Report find regarding the educational benefits for Black children?
Answer: They benefited substantially from learning in mixed-race classrooms.
The 1966 Coleman Report found that socially disadvantaged Black children benefited significantly from learning in mixed-race classrooms, supporting the rationale for integration.
How did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 address school districts that did not comply with desegregation?
Answer: It empowered the federal government to cut off funding.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 empowered the federal government to cut off funding to school districts that refused to comply with desegregation orders, providing a strong incentive for compliance.
Desegregation busing policies were universally welcomed by all communities, with no significant opposition recorded.
Answer: False
Desegregation busing policies encountered substantial opposition from various segments of society, stemming from concerns about disruption, parental choice, and the effectiveness of the policy.
The term 'white flight' describes the movement of white families from suburban areas to urban centers, often triggered by school desegregation policies.
Answer: False
The term 'white flight' refers to the migration of white families from urban centers to suburban communities, frequently occurring as a reaction to school desegregation initiatives.
The Southern Manifesto was a document supporting the Supreme Court's mandate for school desegregation.
Answer: False
The Southern Manifesto, issued in 1956, was a statement of opposition by Southern congressmen to the Supreme Court's ruling in *Brown v. Board of Education*, pledging resistance to desegregation.
Busing policies generally led to a significant increase in the percentage of Black students attending mostly-minority schools nationwide between 1970 and 1980.
Answer: False
While results varied, busing policies generally aimed to decrease the percentage of Black students attending mostly-minority schools. Statistics from 1970 to 1980 show a decrease in the percentage of Black students in predominantly minority schools nationwide.
Segregation academies were private schools established to promote racial integration and diversity.
Answer: False
Segregation academies were private institutions established primarily by white parents seeking to avoid desegregated public schools, rather than to promote integration or diversity.
Congressional opposition to busing policies included votes to end court-mandated busing and legislative proposals like the 'Biden-Roth' amendment.
Answer: True
Congressional opposition to busing policies was evident through repeated votes to end court-mandated busing and legislative proposals like the 'Biden-Roth' amendment, which aimed to restrict judicial orders for busing.
A RAND Corporation study in 1978 found that white opposition to busing was primarily driven by concerns over increased school funding.
Answer: False
A 1978 RAND Corporation study suggested that white opposition to busing was primarily driven by concerns over the disruption of neighborhood schools, perceived increases in discipline problems, and erosion of community pride, rather than solely funding issues.
Some studies indicated that busing led to significant academic improvements for Black students and consistently improved race relations.
Answer: False
Some research indicated that busing did not consistently lead to significant academic improvements for Black students and, in some instances, could negatively impact race relations within schools.
In cities implementing busing programs, white enrollment in public schools generally remained stable or increased.
Answer: False
In many cities implementing busing programs, white enrollment in public schools significantly declined as families moved to suburbs or opted for private schools, a phenomenon often referred to as 'white flight'.
Research by Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin found that higher concentrations of Black students in schools positively impacted the academic achievement of all students.
Answer: False
Research by Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin suggested that higher concentrations of Black students in schools adversely affected the academic achievement of Black students, particularly high-achieving ones, rather than positively impacting all students.
Senator Joe Biden proposed legislation in the 1970s to prevent judges from ordering wider busing plans.
Answer: True
In the 1970s, Senator Joe Biden was a proponent of legislation, such as the 'Biden-Roth' amendment, aimed at limiting the scope of court-ordered busing plans designed to achieve racial integration.
Education conservatives argue that racial separation in schools is primarily a result of court decisions mandating integration.
Answer: False
Education conservatives generally argue that racial separation in schools is primarily a result of residential demographics, not court decisions mandating integration, and that court-mandated integration policies are themselves discriminatory.
Some research suggested that busing improved race relations by fostering greater understanding between students of different races.
Answer: False
While some integration efforts aimed to improve race relations, some research indicated that busing could negatively impact race relations and heighten racial identity, rather than consistently fostering greater understanding.
The Biden-Roth amendment sought to mandate wider busing plans to ensure fully integrated districts.
Answer: False
The Biden-Roth amendment sought to prevent judges from ordering wider busing plans designed to achieve integrated districts, rather than mandating them.
Thomas Sowell argued that de facto racial segregation in schools inherently led to poorer educational outcomes for Black students.
Answer: False
Thomas Sowell argued that de facto racial segregation in schools did not necessarily lead to poorer educational outcomes for Black students, challenging a core premise of busing policies.
Which of the following was a common reason for opposition to desegregation busing policies?
Answer: Disruption of established neighborhood schools and practical challenges.
Common reasons for opposition to desegregation busing included the disruption of neighborhood schools, concerns about long travel times, and the perceived loss of local control and parental choice.
What does the term 'white flight' describe in the context of desegregation busing?
Answer: The phenomenon of white families moving from urban centers to suburban areas, often to avoid integrated schools.
The term 'white flight' describes the migration of white families from urban areas to suburban communities, frequently occurring as a reaction to school desegregation initiatives.
What was the purpose of the Southern Manifesto issued in 1956?
Answer: To pledge resistance to the Supreme Court's ruling mandating school desegregation.
The Southern Manifesto was a document issued by Southern congressmen in 1956 to express their opposition to the Supreme Court's decision in *Brown v. Board of Education* and pledge resistance to its mandate.
What was a consequence of busing policies on white enrollment in many urban public schools?
Answer: White enrollment significantly declined as families moved or chose private schools.
A significant consequence of busing policies in many urban areas was a decline in white enrollment, as families relocated to suburbs or enrolled children in private schools.
What did research by Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin suggest about the impact of high concentrations of Black students in schools?
Answer: It adversely affected the academic achievement of Black students.
Research by Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin suggested that higher concentrations of Black students in schools adversely affected the academic achievement of Black students, particularly high-achieving ones.
What was the primary argument of education conservatives regarding racial separation in schools?
Answer: It is a result of residential demographics, not court decisions.
Education conservatives primarily argue that racial separation in schools stems from residential demographics rather than court decisions mandating integration, and they often advocate for colorblind policies.
What did some research suggest about the impact of busing on race relations within schools?
Answer: It could negatively impact race relations and heighten racial identity.
Some research suggested that busing could negatively impact race relations within schools, potentially heightening racial identity and reducing opportunities for positive inter-racial contact.
What did Thomas Sowell argue about the premise of school busing?
Answer: That de facto segregation did not necessarily lead to poorer educational outcomes.
Thomas Sowell argued that the premise of school busing was flawed, contending that de facto racial segregation in schools did not inherently lead to poorer educational outcomes for Black students.
Desegregation busing was implemented in major cities such as Boston, Detroit, and Kansas City.
Answer: True
Desegregation busing was implemented in numerous large, ethnically segregated school systems, including Boston, Massachusetts; Detroit, Michigan; and Kansas City, Missouri.
The busing plan ordered in Boston in 1974 led to widespread acceptance and minimal public outcry.
Answer: False
The 1974 court-ordered busing plan in Boston resulted in significant racial violence, protests, and intense public opposition, particularly in certain neighborhoods.
Charlotte, North Carolina's schools became fully re-segregated by 1999, reaching levels of segregation similar to before the *Brown v. Board* decision.
Answer: True
Reports indicate that Charlotte, North Carolina's schools experienced significant re-segregation by 1999, with some analyses suggesting levels of segregation comparable to the pre-*Brown v. Board* era.
The Kansas City desegregation effort involved federal courts taking partial control of the school district and implementing extensive programs.
Answer: True
In Kansas City, Missouri, a federal court assumed partial control of the school district and implemented extensive desegregation measures, including busing and magnet programs, which became one of the most costly efforts of its kind.
The 'Nashville Plan' initiated in 1957 aimed for immediate and complete integration of all grade levels in Nashville's schools.
Answer: False
The 'Nashville Plan,' initiated in 1957, was a phased approach that began integration with first graders, rather than aiming for immediate and complete integration of all grade levels.
Following the 1970 desegregation order in Pasadena, California, white enrollment in public schools increased as families embraced the plan.
Answer: False
Following the 1970 desegregation order in Pasadena, California, many white, middle-class families moved their children to private schools, leading to a significant decrease in white enrollment in public schools.
The busing plan ordered in Prince George's County, Maryland, in 1974 was met with widespread approval from county residents.
Answer: False
The busing plan ordered in Prince George's County, Maryland, in 1974 faced widespread opposition, with reports indicating that 75% of county residents were against forced busing.
In Richmond, Virginia, the 1971 busing order successfully led to decades of sustained white student enrollment and integration.
Answer: False
In Richmond, Virginia, the 1971 busing order fueled white flight to private schools and neighboring counties, leading to a sharp decline in white student enrollment and hindering sustained integration.
The Wilmington, Delaware, desegregation plan combined eleven school districts into one metropolitan area for busing.
Answer: True
In Wilmington, Delaware, a 1976 court order combined eleven school districts into a single metropolitan area for the purpose of implementing busing to achieve racial balance.
The Indianapolis busing plan, initiated in 1973, involved busing African-American students from the city district to neighboring townships within Marion County.
Answer: True
In Indianapolis, a 1973 court order mandated busing for thousands of African-American students from the city district to neighboring townships within Marion County as part of a desegregation effort.
In Boston, courts found that school construction and district lines were intentionally drawn to promote racial segregation.
Answer: True
In Boston, a federal court determined that school construction and the drawing of district lines had been intentionally manipulated to foster racial segregation, providing grounds for a busing remedy.
The judge who instituted the Detroit busing plan deemed the transportation of kindergarten children for up to forty-five minutes one-way as reasonable.
Answer: False
The judge who instituted the Detroit busing plan found the transportation of kindergarten children for up to forty-five minutes one-way to be unreasonable, harmful, or unsafe.
In the *Evans v. Buchanan* case, courts ordered the combination of school districts in New Castle County, Delaware, to achieve racial balance through busing.
Answer: True
In the *Evans v. Buchanan* case, courts ordered the consolidation of school districts in New Castle County, Delaware, to implement busing and achieve racial balance.
Which of the following cities implemented desegregation busing programs?
Answer: Boston, Detroit, and Kansas City.
Desegregation busing was implemented in numerous large urban centers, including Boston, Massachusetts; Detroit, Michigan; and Kansas City, Missouri.
How did Charlotte, North Carolina's experience with busing evolve over time?
Answer: Its schools became re-segregated by 1999, similar to pre-Brown levels.
Charlotte, North Carolina's schools, despite initial integration efforts via busing, experienced significant re-segregation by 1999, with levels comparable to the pre-*Brown v. Board* era.
What was a key feature of the desegregation effort in Kansas City, Missouri?
Answer: A federal court took partial control and implemented extensive programs.
A key feature of the Kansas City desegregation effort was the intervention of a federal court, which took partial control of the school district and implemented extensive programs, including busing and magnet schools.
What was the 'Nashville Plan' for school desegregation?
Answer: A phased approach starting with first graders.
The 'Nashville Plan' was a phased approach to school desegregation initiated in 1957, beginning integration with the first grade and gradually expanding.
How did Pasadena, California, respond to its 1970 federal court desegregation order?
Answer: Many white, middle-class families moved their children to private schools.
Following the 1970 desegregation order, Pasadena, California, saw many white, middle-class families withdraw their children from public schools to attend private institutions.
What was the general sentiment of Prince George's County residents towards the 1974 busing plan?
Answer: Widespread opposition, with 75% against forced busing.
The 1974 busing plan ordered for Prince George's County, Maryland, was met with widespread opposition, with reports indicating that 75% of residents were against forced busing.
What was a significant consequence of the busing order in Richmond, Virginia?
Answer: Fueling white flight and a sharp decline in white students.
The 1971 busing order in Richmond, Virginia, contributed to white flight and a sharp decline in white student enrollment, hindering sustained integration.
How did the Wilmington, Delaware, desegregation plan (1976) structure its approach?
Answer: It combined eleven school districts into one metropolitan area for busing.
The Wilmington, Delaware, desegregation plan implemented in 1976 involved combining eleven school districts into a single metropolitan area to facilitate busing for racial balance.
The Rehnquist Court introduced the concept of 'unitary status,' allowing federal judges to ease supervision once legally enforced segregation was practically eliminated.
Answer: True
The Rehnquist Court, through decisions in the early 1990s, established the concept of 'unitary status,' which permitted federal judges to terminate court supervision over school districts once legally enforced segregation had been practically eliminated.
The Roberts Court, in *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1*, upheld the use of racial classifications in student assignment plans to maintain racial balance.
Answer: False
The Roberts Court, in *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* (2007), prohibited the use of racial classifications in student assignment plans, ruling that such measures violated the Equal Protection Clause.
According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, school desegregation in the U.S. peaked around 1988 and has been increasing since.
Answer: False
According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, school desegregation peaked around 1988, but has generally become more pronounced since then, indicating increasing segregation.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) prioritized integration efforts and busing mandates over student testing.
Answer: False
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) shifted the focus in education policy towards standardized testing and accountability, rather than prioritizing integration efforts or busing mandates.
The *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* ruling allowed the continued use of race as a primary factor in student assignment plans.
Answer: False
The *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* ruling prohibited the use of race as a primary factor in student assignment plans, finding it violated the Equal Protection Clause.
The *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* ruling found that using race to achieve integration violated the Constitution.
Answer: True
The *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* ruling (2007) determined that using race as a determining factor in student assignment plans, even for the purpose of achieving integration, violated the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause.
Since the late 1980s, U.S. public schools have generally become less segregated due to effective integration policies.
Answer: False
Contrary to becoming less segregated, U.S. public schools have generally become more segregated since the late 1980s, attributed to demographic shifts and evolving legal interpretations.
The Roberts Court ruling in *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* (2007) primarily addressed what issue?
Answer: The use of racial classifications in student assignment plans for racial balance.
The Roberts Court ruling in *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* primarily addressed the constitutionality of using race as a factor in student assignment plans aimed at achieving racial balance.
How did the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) shift the focus in education policy?
Answer: By emphasizing student testing and academic performance over integration.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) shifted the focus in education policy towards standardized testing and academic performance accountability, rather than prioritizing integration efforts.
What was the outcome of the *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* ruling on the use of race in student assignments?
Answer: It prohibited the use of race in student assignment plans.
The *Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1* ruling prohibited the use of race as a factor in student assignment plans, finding it unconstitutional.
What trend has been observed in U.S. public school segregation since the late 1980s?
Answer: Schools have generally become more segregated.
Since the late 1980s, U.S. public schools have generally become more segregated, attributed to demographic shifts and evolving legal interpretations that have limited integration efforts.