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Fenethylline is a codrug that metabolizes into amphetamine and theophylline, both of which are active stimulants.
Answer: True
Fenethylline is defined as a codrug that acts as a mutual prodrug for amphetamine and theophylline, which are its active stimulant metabolites.
The fenethylline molecule is formed when caffeine is covalently linked with amphetamine by an alkyl chain.
Answer: False
The fenethylline molecule is formed when *theophylline* is covalently linked with amphetamine by an alkyl chain, not caffeine.
Fenethylline's physiological effects are primarily due to its direct action on serotonin receptors before metabolism.
Answer: False
Fenethylline's physiological effects appear to result from a synergistic effect between the amphetamine and theophylline produced *following its metabolism*, although it may have some direct action on serotonin receptors before cleavage.
The clandestine chemical synthesis of fenethylline is described as complex and expensive by reviewers.
Answer: False
Reviewers Pergolizzi Jr., et al. (2024) describe the clandestine chemical synthesis of fenethylline as 'straightforward and inexpensive,' not complex and expensive.
The synthesis of fenethylline involves two main laboratory steps: alkylation of theophylline and displacement of a terminal halide by amphetamine.
Answer: True
The synthesis of fenethylline indeed involves two main laboratory steps: alkylation of theophylline and subsequent displacement of a terminal halide by amphetamine.
What is Fenethylline primarily defined as in the context of its chemical composition and action?
Answer: A codrug of amphetamine and theophylline, acting as a mutual prodrug.
Fenethylline is defined as a codrug of amphetamine and theophylline, functioning as a mutual prodrug, meaning it metabolizes into these active stimulants.
How is the Fenethylline molecule chemically structured?
Answer: Theophylline covalently linked with amphetamine by an alkyl chain.
The Fenethylline molecule is chemically structured as theophylline covalently linked with amphetamine by an alkyl chain.
What are the two active stimulant drugs Fenethylline is metabolized into in the body?
Answer: Amphetamine and theophylline
Fenethylline is metabolized in the body to form two active stimulant drugs: amphetamine and theophylline.
How is the clandestine chemical synthesis of fenethylline characterized by reviewers Pergolizzi Jr., et al. (2024)?
Answer: Straightforward and inexpensive.
Reviewers Pergolizzi Jr., et al. (2024) characterize the clandestine chemical synthesis of fenethylline as 'straightforward and inexpensive.'
The brand name 'Captagon' is exclusively used for legally produced fenethylline in the Middle East.
Answer: False
The brand name 'Captagon' is now frequently used generically to refer to illicitly produced fenethylline, particularly in the Middle East, and fenethylline is illegal in most countries.
Fenethylline was first synthesized in 1961 by a British pharmaceutical firm.
Answer: False
Fenethylline was first synthesized in 1961 by the German pharmaceutical firm Degussa AG, not a British firm.
A key advantage of fenethylline over amphetamine for therapeutic use was its ability to significantly increase blood pressure, making it effective for hypotensive patients.
Answer: False
A key advantage of fenethylline was that it *did not increase blood pressure to the same extent* as an equivalent dose of amphetamine, making it potentially suitable for patients with cardiovascular conditions, rather than significantly increasing it.
Fenethylline received FDA approval for treating narcolepsy and depression before it was classified as a controlled substance.
Answer: False
Fenethylline did not have FDA-approved indications, although it was historically used for conditions like 'hyperkinetic children,' narcolepsy, and depression.
Fenethylline was classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States in 1981 due to its chemical similarity to amphetamine.
Answer: True
Fenethylline was classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States in 1981, primarily due to its chemical similarity to amphetamine.
Fenethylline became illegal in most countries in 1986 after the World Health Organization recommended its international scheduling under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Answer: True
Fenethylline became illegal in most countries by 1986 following the World Health Organization's recommendation for its international scheduling under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Fenethylline was used therapeutically for approximately 50 years before being internationally scheduled.
Answer: False
Fenethylline was used therapeutically for approximately *25 years* (from 1961 to 1986) before it became illegal in most countries due to international scheduling.
Which of the following is NOT a historical brand name for Fenethylline?
Answer: Adderall
Captagon, Biocapton, and Fitton are historical brand names for Fenethylline. Adderall is a brand name for a different amphetamine-based medication.
When was Fenethylline first synthesized?
Answer: 1961
Fenethylline was first synthesized in 1961 by the German pharmaceutical firm Degussa AG.
What was a perceived advantage of Fenethylline over amphetamine for therapeutic use?
Answer: It did not increase blood pressure to the same extent as an equivalent dose of amphetamine.
A key advantage of fenethylline was its reduced propensity to elevate blood pressure compared to an equivalent dose of amphetamine.
Despite lacking FDA approval, Fenethylline was historically used to treat which condition, now known as ADHD?
Answer: Hyperkinetic children
Fenethylline was historically used to treat 'hyperkinetic children,' a condition now recognized as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
In what year was Fenethylline classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States?
Answer: 1981
Fenethylline was classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States in 1981.
What international action led to Fenethylline becoming illegal in most countries by 1986?
Answer: A recommendation by the World Health Organization under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Fenethylline became illegal in most countries by 1986 following the World Health Organization's recommendation for its international scheduling under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
In 2023, the illicit global market for fenethylline was estimated to be worth approximately US$57 billion.
Answer: True
The illicit global market for fenethylline was estimated at approximately US$57 billion in 2023, reflecting its significant economic scale.
Syria, under the Assad regime, was responsible for approximately 80% of the global supply of Captagon, making it the country's principal export during the civil war.
Answer: True
Under the Assad regime, Syria was the largest global producer of Captagon, accounting for about 80% of the supply, and it became the country's primary export during the civil war.
Following the fall of the Assad government in December 2024, the Captagon trade in Syria reportedly increased by 90% due to political instability.
Answer: False
Following the fall of the Assad government in December 2024, the Captagon trade in Syria reportedly *decreased* by approximately 90% due to the destruction of seized drugs and manufacturing equipment by the new government.
Counterfeit 'Captagon' tablets always contain actual fenethylline, mixed with other fillers.
Answer: False
Counterfeit 'Captagon' tablets often contain other amphetamine derivatives and caffeine, not always actual fenethylline, though some analyzed pills do contain it.
In 2022, the Assad regime's annual fenethylline revenues were estimated to be three times the total trade of the entire Mexican illicit drug market.
Answer: True
The Assad regime's annual fenethylline revenues in 2022 were estimated at US$57 billion, which was approximately three times the total trade of the Mexican illicit drug market.
Investigations into 'Captagon' products seized in France in 2017 revealed they primarily contained pure fenethylline, not a mixture.
Answer: False
Investigations into 'Captagon' products seized in France in 2017 indicated they primarily contained a mixture of amphetamine and theophylline, rather than pure fenethylline.
Fenethylline production and sale generated significant revenues during the Syrian civil war, which were likely used to fund weapon purchases.
Answer: True
Fenethylline production and sale during the Syrian civil war generated substantial revenues, which were likely diverted to fund weapon acquisitions.
Poverty and international sanctions in Syria led to decreased fenethylline production due to lack of resources.
Answer: False
Poverty and international sanctions in Syria were contributing factors to *increased* fenethylline production, leading to greater industrialization and technical sophistication in its manufacture, as legal exports were limited.
*The Guardian* characterized Syria's fenethylline production in May 2021 as creating a 'near-narco-state,' highlighting its role as a global production center.
Answer: True
*The Guardian* indeed described Syria's fenethylline production in May 2021 as creating a 'near-narco-state,' emphasizing its global centrality in fenethylline manufacturing.
The Syrian Army's elite 4th Armoured Division was reported to oversee fenethylline production and distribution, commanded by Bashar al-Assad's brother.
Answer: True
The Syrian Army's elite 4th Armoured Division, commanded by Maher al-Assad, was reported to oversee a significant portion of fenethylline production and distribution.
What percentage of the global Captagon supply was Syria responsible for under the Assad regime?
Answer: Approximately 80%
Under the Assad regime, Syria was the world's largest producer of Captagon, responsible for about 80% of the global supply.
What happened to the Captagon trade in Syria following the fall of the Assad government in December 2024?
Answer: It reportedly decreased by approximately 90%.
Following the fall of the Assad government in December 2024, the Captagon trade in Syria reportedly decreased by approximately 90% due to the destruction of seized drugs and manufacturing equipment.
What is often found in counterfeit 'Captagon' tablets?
Answer: Other amphetamine derivatives, caffeine, and various fillers.
Counterfeit 'Captagon' tablets frequently contain other amphetamine derivatives, caffeine, and various fillers, though some may still contain actual fenethylline.
What was the estimated value of the Assad regime's annual fenethylline revenues in 2022?
Answer: US$57 billion
The Assad regime's annual fenethylline revenues were estimated to be US$57 billion in 2022.
What did investigations reveal about the composition of 'Captagon' products seized in France in 2017?
Answer: They primarily contained a mixture of amphetamine and theophylline.
Investigations into 'Captagon' products seized in France in 2017 indicated they primarily contained a mixture of amphetamine and theophylline, rather than pure fenethylline.
What role did fenethylline play in the Syrian civil war?
Answer: Its production and sale generated revenues to fund weapon purchases and was used as a stimulant by combatants.
Fenethylline's production and sale during the Syrian civil war generated significant revenues, likely used for weapon purchases, and the drug served as a stimulant for combatants.
What factors contributed to the increased industrialization and production of fenethylline in Syria?
Answer: Poverty and international sanctions limiting legal exports.
Poverty and international sanctions, which restricted legal exports, were key factors contributing to the increased industrialization and production of fenethylline in Syria.
Which elite division of the Syrian Army was reported to oversee fenethylline production and distribution?
Answer: The 4th Armoured Division
The Syrian Army's elite 4th Armoured Division, commanded by Maher al-Assad, was reported to oversee fenethylline production and distribution.
A Saudi royal family member was detained in Beirut in October 2015 for attempting to smuggle two tons of fenethylline pills and some cocaine.
Answer: True
In October 2015, a Saudi royal family member and four others were detained in Beirut after two tons of fenethylline pills and cocaine were found on a private jet.
Turkish authorities seized approximately eleven million fenethylline pills along the Syrian border in November 2015, which were destined for European markets.
Answer: False
Turkish authorities seized approximately eleven million fenethylline pills along the Syrian border in November 2015, but these were destined for countries in the *Arab states of the Persian Gulf*, not European markets.
In December 2018, Greek authorities intercepted a Syrian ship carrying six tonnes of processed cannabis and three million fenethylline pills destined for Italy.
Answer: False
In December 2018, Greek authorities intercepted a Syrian ship carrying six tonnes of processed cannabis and three million fenethylline pills, but it was sailing towards *Libya*, not Italy.
Saudi Arabia imposed an import ban on fruits and vegetables from Lebanon in April 2020 due to concerns about drug smuggling, which caused the price of Lebanese lettuce to plummet.
Answer: True
Following a large fenethylline seizure, Saudi Arabia imposed an import ban on Lebanese fruits and vegetables in April 2020, citing drug smuggling concerns, which indeed led to a plummet in Lebanese lettuce prices.
An anti-drug operation in Italy in July 2020 seized fourteen tonnes of amphetamines, initially thought to be produced by the Russian mafia.
Answer: False
An anti-drug operation in Italy in July 2020 seized fourteen tonnes of amphetamines (Captagon), which were initially thought by Italian authorities to have been produced by *ISIS*, not the Russian mafia.
In December 2020, Italian authorities seized approximately 14 tonnes of fenethylline, estimated to be worth around $1 billion, which had arrived from Latakia, Syria.
Answer: True
In December 2020, Italian authorities seized approximately 14 tonnes of fenethylline, valued at about $1 billion, which originated from Latakia, Syria.
In October 2015, what quantity of fenethylline pills was discovered on a private jet linked to a Saudi royal family member in Beirut?
Answer: 2 tons
In October 2015, two tons of fenethylline pills, along with cocaine, were discovered on a private jet linked to a Saudi royal family member in Beirut.
How many fenethylline pills were seized by Turkish authorities in November 2015 during raids along the Syrian border?
Answer: About eleven million pills
Turkish authorities seized approximately eleven million fenethylline pills (two tonnes) during raids along the Syrian border in November 2015.
In December 2018, Greek authorities intercepted a Syrian ship carrying fenethylline pills and what other illicit cargo?
Answer: Processed cannabis
In December 2018, Greek authorities intercepted a Syrian ship carrying three million fenethylline pills and six tonnes of processed cannabis.
What record amount of amphetamine Captagon was seized by Greek authorities in July 2019?
Answer: 33 million pills
In July 2019, Greek authorities seized a record 33 million amphetamine Captagon pills, weighing 5.25 tonnes.
How were 35 million fenethylline pills concealed in a shipment from Syria to Jebel Ali in February 2020?
Answer: Within a shipment of electric cables.
In February 2020, 35 million fenethylline pills were discovered concealed within a shipment of electric cables from Syria to Jebel Ali.
Why did Saudi Arabia impose an import ban on fruits and vegetables from Lebanon in April 2020?
Answer: Concerns about drug smuggling after a large fenethylline seizure.
Saudi Arabia imposed an import ban on Lebanese fruits and vegetables in April 2020 due to concerns about drug smuggling, following a seizure of 44.7 million fenethylline pills.
What was the estimated value of the 14 tonnes of fenethylline seized by Italian authorities in December 2020?
Answer: $1 billion
The 14 tonnes of fenethylline seized by Italian authorities in December 2020, originating from Latakia, Syria, were estimated to be worth approximately $1 billion.
How were 5 million fenethylline pills concealed in a shipment seized at Beirut port in February 2021?
Answer: Hidden inside a tile-making machine.
In February 2021, 5 million fenethylline pills were seized at Beirut port, concealed inside a tile-making machine.
In 2017, 40% of young people aged 12 to 22 in Saudi Arabia were reported to be addicted to fenethylline.
Answer: True
A 2017 report by the National Committee for Narcotics Control indicated that 40% of fenethylline users aged 12 to 22 in Saudi Arabia were addicted.
Traces of fenethylline were found on a mobile phone used by the individual responsible for the 2016 Nice truck attack.
Answer: True
Traces of fenethylline were indeed found on a mobile phone used by Mohamed Lahouaiej Bouhlel, the perpetrator of the 2016 Nice truck attack.
Fenethylline is sometimes called the 'jihad drug' because it is primarily used by religious scholars for meditation.
Answer: False
Fenethylline is sometimes called the 'jihad drug' because it is used by some jihadist fighters as a major stimulant, not by religious scholars for meditation.
Doctors have reported that fenethylline has dangerous side effects, including psychosis and brain damage.
Answer: True
Medical professionals have reported dangerous side effects of fenethylline, including psychosis and brain damage.
A former fighter associated with the Muslim Brotherhood described combatants taking high doses of fenethylline as experiencing heightened emotional awareness and empathy.
Answer: False
A former fighter described combatants on high doses of fenethylline as 'going blank,' losing connection to emotions and thoughts, and sometimes exhibiting 'zombie-like detachment,' which contradicts heightened emotional awareness and empathy.
Israeli forces claimed to have found fenethylline in liquid and powder forms during the October 7 attacks, a claim met with skepticism by an expert.
Answer: True
Israeli forces claimed to have found fenethylline in liquid and powder forms during the October 7 attacks, a claim that was met with skepticism by an expert due to the rarity of these forms.
In which region is the abuse of fenethylline, often referred to as Captagon, most common?
Answer: Middle East
The abuse of fenethylline, commonly known as Captagon, is predominantly observed in the Middle East.
According to a 2017 report, what percentage of users between the ages of 12 and 22 in Saudi Arabia were addicted to fenethylline?
Answer: 40%
A 2017 report by the National Committee for Narcotics Control stated that 40% of fenethylline users aged 12 to 22 in Saudi Arabia were addicted.
What connection was found between fenethylline and the 2016 Nice truck attack?
Answer: Traces of fenethylline were found on a mobile phone used by the attacker.
Traces of fenethylline were found on a mobile phone used by Mohamed Lahouaiej Bouhlel, the perpetrator of the 2016 Nice truck attack.
What nickname is sometimes given to fenethylline due to its use by jihadist fighters?
Answer: The 'jihad drug'
Fenethylline is sometimes dubbed the 'jihad drug' due to its use as a major stimulant by some jihadist fighters.
What are some reported effects of fenethylline on users, particularly combatants?
Answer: Produces euphoric intensity, suppresses fear and hunger, and induces a sense of invincibility.
Fenethylline is reported to produce euphoric intensity, suppress fear and hunger, and induce a sense of invincibility, particularly in combatants.
What dangerous side effects have doctors reported for fenethylline?
Answer: Psychosis and brain damage.
Doctors have reported dangerous side effects of fenethylline, including psychosis and brain damage.
What claims did Israeli forces make about fenethylline during the October 7 attacks?
Answer: They found fenethylline-containing tablets, powder, and liquid on attackers.
Israeli forces claimed to have found fenethylline-containing tablets, powder, and liquid on the bodies of attackers during the October 7 attacks.
Hair testing for fenethylline can help distinguish between fenethylline use and amphetamine use over a longer period.
Answer: True
Hair testing for fenethylline is useful for discriminating between fenethylline use and amphetamine use over an extended period, as it can detect the drug and its metabolites.
What analytical method has been developed for identifying fenethylline and related substances in biological samples?
Answer: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method has been developed for the determination of fenethylline and related substances in biological samples.
What is a practical application of hair testing for fenethylline?
Answer: To differentiate between fenethylline use and amphetamine use over a longer period.
Hair testing for fenethylline is useful for discriminating between fenethylline use and amphetamine use over an extended period.