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Language death is defined as the point when a language is no longer known by anyone, including second-language speakers.
Answer: False
This statement accurately describes language extinction, not language death. Language death occurs when the last native speaker of a language ceases to exist, irrespective of whether second-language speakers retain knowledge of it.
Glottophagy refers to the death of a language due to natural causes or political actions.
Answer: False
Glottophagy specifically denotes the phenomenon of a language being 'devoured' or absorbed by a more dominant language, leading to its disappearance. The death of a language due to natural causes or political actions is a broader concept, often encompassed by terms like linguicide or simply language death.
Language attrition describes the decline in proficiency of a first language by an individual speaker.
Answer: True
Language attrition, also referred to as language loss, precisely describes the gradual decrease in an individual's proficiency in their native or first language, often due to disuse or the influence of a dominant second language.
It is estimated that approximately 90% of the world's languages could become extinct by the year 2050.
Answer: True
Projections based on the rate of language endangerment suggest a severe potential loss; a notable estimate posits that up to 90% of the approximately 7,000 languages currently spoken could face extinction by the mid-21st century.
Ethnologue has consistently recorded an increasing number of living languages over the past two decades.
Answer: False
Contrary to an increase, data from Ethnologue indicates a decline in the number of documented living languages over recent decades, reflecting the ongoing trend of language endangerment.
A language is considered effectively dead if only a few elderly speakers remain who do not use it for regular communication.
Answer: True
When a language has very few elderly speakers who no longer use it for daily communication, and crucially, it is not being transmitted to younger generations, it is often considered effectively dead or moribund.
A language is considered moribund when it is actively taught to new generations as their primary language.
Answer: False
A language is considered moribund when it is no longer being acquired by children as their primary language, indicating a critical decline in intergenerational transmission, rather than active teaching to new generations.
Linguists consider a language 'dead' through natural change if all its original speakers vanish abruptly.
Answer: False
The scenario described—abrupt vanishing of all speakers—pertains to language extinction. A language considered 'dead' through natural change (pseudoextinction) has evolved into a descendant language, maintaining an unbroken transmission chain, rather than ceasing to exist entirely.
Language change is a process where a language ceases to be spoken entirely due to external pressures.
Answer: False
Language change is a natural evolutionary process involving transformation over time, whereas language death signifies the complete cessation of use, often exacerbated by external pressures but fundamentally about the loss of speakers.
Vulgar Latin is cited as an example of language death because it ceased to be spoken in its original form.
Answer: False
Vulgar Latin is an example of language *change*, not death. It evolved into the various Romance languages through an unbroken chain of transmission, rather than ceasing to be spoken entirely.
The Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) is one system proposed for measuring language vitality.
Answer: True
The Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS), developed by Joshua Fishman, is indeed one of the established frameworks proposed for assessing and measuring the vitality and health of languages.
The United Nations estimates that most languages with fewer than 1,000 speakers will survive the next century without intervention.
Answer: False
The United Nations highlights the precarious state of languages with few speakers, estimating that without significant intervention, the majority of languages spoken by fewer than 1,000 individuals are unlikely to survive the next century.
The term 'obsolescence' in linguistics refers to the process where a language becomes more widely adopted globally.
Answer: False
In linguistic contexts, 'obsolescence' typically refers to the decline in usage and proficiency of a language, leading to its eventual disuse or extinction, rather than increased global adoption.
A language can be considered 'dead' through evolution if its original form transforms into a new language via an unbroken transmission chain.
Answer: True
This describes pseudoextinction or natural language change, where a language evolves into a distinct descendant language through an unbroken chain of transmission, rather than ceasing to exist entirely. The original form is no longer spoken, but it has transformed, not vanished.
Language extinction occurs when a language is no longer used even by second-language speakers.
Answer: True
Language extinction signifies the complete disappearance of a language, meaning it is unknown and unused by any individuals, including those who might have learned it as a second language.
Glottophagy involves the absorption of a major language by a minor one.
Answer: False
Glottophagy describes the process where a minor or less dominant language is absorbed or replaced by a major, more dominant language, leading to the former's disappearance.
Latin evolving into Romance languages is an example of language death.
Answer: False
The evolution of Latin into various Romance languages exemplifies natural language change and diversification, not language death, as there was an unbroken transmission chain from Latin to its descendants.
What is the precise definition of language death according to linguistics?
Answer: When a language loses its very last native speaker.
Linguistically, language death is definitively marked by the cessation of transmission to new generations, culminating in the loss of the final native speaker. This distinguishes it from language extinction, which implies no one, including second-language speakers, retains knowledge of the language.
Which term describes the complete disappearance of a language, meaning it is not known by anyone, including second-language speakers?
Answer: Language extinction
Language extinction refers to the state where a language is no longer known or spoken by any individual, signifying its complete disappearance from human knowledge. This is distinct from language death (loss of last native speaker) or attrition (individual loss of proficiency).
What is the projected fate of most of the world's approximately 7,000 languages by 2050, according to a 2004 estimate?
Answer: 90% could become extinct.
A significant projection from 2004 indicated that by 2050, approximately 90% of the world's estimated 7,000 languages might face extinction, highlighting the critical rate of language endangerment.
According to Ethnologue, what trend has been observed in the number of documented living languages between 2001 and 2016?
Answer: The number decreased from 7,358 to 7,097.
Ethnologue's data reveals a decrease in the number of documented living languages, falling from 7,358 in 2001 to 7,097 by February 2016, reflecting the ongoing global trend of language loss.
What is 'linguicide'?
Answer: The death of a language due to natural disasters or wars, or forced loss.
Linguicide refers to the death of a language, which can occur through catastrophic events affecting speakers or through deliberate actions aimed at eradicating a language, such as forced assimilation or cultural suppression.
When is a language considered 'moribund'?
Answer: When it is no longer being acquired by children as their primary language.
A language is classified as 'moribund' when the critical process of intergenerational transmission ceases, meaning children are no longer learning it as their first language, indicating it is on the path to death.
How do linguists differentiate between a language dying naturally and becoming extinct?
Answer: Natural death means evolution into a new language; extinction means no speakers remain.
Linguists distinguish between extinction (complete disappearance) and natural death (evolution into a descendant language via unbroken transmission). The former implies a void, while the latter signifies transformation.
What distinguishes language change from language death?
Answer: Language change involves evolution and diversification; language death involves cessation of use.
Language change is a natural process of evolution and diversification over time, whereas language death signifies the complete cessation of a language's use and transmission, typically due to a breakdown in speaker community continuity.
What does the term 'obsolescence' refer to in the context of language loss?
Answer: The decline in usage and proficiency of a language.
In the context of language loss, 'obsolescence' refers to the gradual decline in the usage, transmission, and proficiency of a language within its speech community, often preceding its eventual death.
How can a language become 'dead' through normal language change, as opposed to extinction?
Answer: When it evolves into a distinct new language through unbroken transmission.
This process, often termed pseudoextinction, occurs when a language undergoes continuous evolution and diversification over generations, resulting in a descendant language that no longer resembles the original form, yet the transmission chain remained unbroken.
What is the difference between language death and language extinction?
Answer: Death is the loss of the last native speaker; extinction is when no one knows the language.
Language death is precisely defined as the loss of the final native speaker. Language extinction, conversely, signifies a more absolute state where the language is unknown to any living person, including second-language speakers.
Since the modern period, language death has primarily resulted from cultural assimilation driven by colonialism.
Answer: True
Historical analysis indicates that since the advent of the modern period (circa 1500 CE), cultural assimilation, frequently a consequence of colonial expansion, has been a principal driver of language death worldwide.
Radical language death is characterized by a gradual shift away from the native language over several generations.
Answer: False
Radical language death, conversely, is characterized by the sudden and complete disappearance of a language, often due to intense external pressures, bypassing the gradual attrition process observed in other forms of language loss.
Bottom-to-top language death occurs when a language shift begins in high-level societal domains like government.
Answer: False
The phenomenon described, where a language shift originates in high-level societal domains such as government or formal education, is characteristic of 'top-to-bottom' language death. 'Bottom-to-top' death refers to the process where a language becomes restricted to ceremonial or literary use, ceasing to be spoken in everyday contexts.
Linguicide can refer to the forced loss of a language through assimilation or the destruction of a group's identity.
Answer: True
Linguicide encompasses not only the physical death of all speakers but also the deliberate or systemic suppression of a language, often through forced assimilation policies or actions that undermine a community's cultural identity.
Migration of younger generations to urban centers can help preserve endangered languages by exposing them to more speakers.
Answer: False
Migration of younger generations to urban centers often leads to increased exposure to dominant languages and greater bilingualism, which can complicate or hinder the intergenerational transmission of endangered languages, thus increasing the risk of death.
Cultural contact and clash typically strengthen the attitude towards and use of a heritage language.
Answer: False
Cultural contact and clash often lead to a devaluation or abandonment of a heritage language as speakers adopt a more dominant or prestigious language for social, economic, or political reasons.
During language loss, endangered languages typically become more complex grammatically.
Answer: False
Linguistic analysis of language loss often reveals a trend towards grammatical simplification, including morphological reduction and syntactic streamlining, as the language adapts or is simplified by its remaining speakers.
In East Sutherland, Scotland, semi-speakers of Scottish Gaelic simplified plural formations compared to fluent speakers.
Answer: True
Research on Scottish Gaelic in East Sutherland has documented instances where semi-speakers exhibited simplified plural formations, deviating from the more complex historical patterns used by fluent speakers, illustrating linguistic changes associated with language attrition.
The most common path to language death involves a community becoming monolingual and strengthening their native language use.
Answer: False
The most prevalent pathway to language death involves a community becoming bilingual and subsequently shifting their primary language allegiance to a more dominant or prestigious language, leading to the gradual abandonment of their native tongue.
Which historical period saw language death predominantly driven by cultural assimilation and colonialism?
Answer: The Modern period (beginning around 1500 CE)
The modern historical period, commencing around 1500 CE, is characterized by widespread colonialism and subsequent cultural assimilation, which became primary drivers of language death globally.
Which type of language death occurs when a language is relegated solely to religious, literary, or ceremonial purposes?
Answer: Bottom-to-top death
This describes 'bottom-to-top' language death, a process where a language ceases to be used in everyday conversation but persists in specialized, often ritualistic or literary, domains.
What characterizes 'top-to-bottom' language death?
Answer: The shift begins in high-level societal domains like education or government.
'Top-to-bottom' language death is defined by the initiation of language shift within formal societal structures, such as government or education, even if the language remains in use in informal settings.
How does the migration of younger community members to urban centers typically affect endangered languages?
Answer: It leads to increased bilingualism and difficulty in passing down the native language.
When younger generations migrate for opportunities, they often encounter dominant languages, leading to increased bilingualism. This can disrupt the natural intergenerational transmission of their native language, increasing its vulnerability.
What is the consequence of cultural contact and clash on heritage languages?
Answer: It can lead to the devaluation or abandonment of the heritage language.
Cultural contact and clash can negatively impact heritage languages by fostering a perception that the dominant language offers greater social or economic advantages, potentially leading to the devaluation or abandonment of the native tongue.
Which linguistic change is commonly observed during language loss?
Answer: Simplification of grammar and morphology.
During language loss, endangered languages often undergo simplification in their grammatical structures, including morphology and syntax, as speakers adapt the language or its transmission becomes less robust.
What is the typical process leading to language death?
Answer: A community becoming bilingual and shifting allegiance to a second language.
The most common trajectory towards language death involves a community developing bilingualism and subsequently shifting their primary linguistic allegiance to a more dominant or socially advantageous language, leading to the gradual disuse of their native tongue.
Language death has no significant impact on the identity or well-being of indigenous communities.
Answer: False
The loss of a language profoundly impacts indigenous communities, often leading to negative consequences for individual and collective identity, cultural continuity, and overall well-being, as language is intrinsically linked to these aspects.
Studies in Canada suggest a correlation between higher Indigenous language knowledge and lower suicide rates in communities.
Answer: True
Research conducted in Canada has indicated a positive correlation between the maintenance of Indigenous language knowledge and improved mental health outcomes, specifically lower rates of suicide in communities where ancestral languages are actively spoken.
Research in Alberta, Canada, found no link between traditional Indigenous language knowledge and health outcomes like diabetes.
Answer: False
Contrary to the statement, research in Alberta, Canada, has identified a correlation between higher levels of traditional Indigenous language knowledge and a lower prevalence of health issues such as diabetes.
In indigenous communities, language loss is often linked to improved physical and mental health.
Answer: False
Conversely, in indigenous communities, language loss is frequently associated with detrimental effects on both physical and mental health, underscoring the integral role of language in cultural identity and well-being.
What profound consequences does language death have for indigenous communities?
Answer: Negative impacts on individual and collective health and identity.
The loss of indigenous languages often results in profound negative consequences, affecting not only cultural identity but also the physical and mental health of individuals and the community as a whole.
What connection has been observed between Indigenous language knowledge and health outcomes in Canada?
Answer: Higher language knowledge correlates with lower suicide rates.
Studies in Canada have indicated a significant correlation between higher levels of Indigenous language knowledge and lower rates of suicide within communities, suggesting a link between linguistic heritage and mental well-being.
What is the relationship between language and well-being in indigenous communities?
Answer: Loss of language can negatively impact physical and mental health.
In indigenous communities, language is intrinsically linked to well-being. The erosion or loss of a traditional language often correlates with negative impacts on both physical and mental health, underscoring its role in cultural identity and social cohesion.
Language revitalization aims to accelerate the process of language death.
Answer: False
Language revitalization efforts are fundamentally aimed at counteracting language death, seeking to slow down or reverse the decline and ensure the continued use and transmission of endangered languages.
The revival of Hebrew in Israel is unique because it became a native language after being extinct for centuries.
Answer: True
The revitalization of Hebrew is widely considered a unique historical phenomenon, representing the only known instance where a language, previously dormant as a vernacular for centuries, was successfully re-established as a native spoken language for a new population.
Welsh, Basque, and Hawaiian are examples of languages that have not undergone any revitalization efforts.
Answer: False
Welsh, Basque, and Hawaiian are prominent examples of languages that have undergone significant and often successful revitalization efforts, demonstrating the possibility of reversing language endangerment.
Cultural identity is often cited as a minor reason for language revitalization efforts.
Answer: False
On the contrary, cultural identity is consistently cited as a primary and crucial motivation for language revitalization efforts, as language is deeply interwoven with a community's heritage, self-perception, and cultural continuity.
Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that language reclamation is becoming less important for cultural autonomy.
Answer: False
Ghil'ad Zuckermann posits that language reclamation is becoming increasingly vital for fostering cultural autonomy, intellectual sovereignty, and overall community well-being, emphasizing its role in restoring identity and agency.
The Endangered Languages Project was launched by UNESCO to document endangered languages.
Answer: False
The Endangered Languages Project was initiated by Google, not UNESCO, with the primary objective of compiling current information on endangered languages and disseminating research related to their preservation.
Akira Yamamoto identified nine factors that can help prevent language death.
Answer: True
Linguist Akira Yamamoto meticulously identified nine key factors that contribute to the prevention of language death, encompassing aspects of dominant culture attitudes, community identity, and educational and material support for the endangered language.
The primary goal of the Endangered Languages Project is to promote the use of dominant languages.
Answer: False
The primary objective of the Endangered Languages Project is to document and support the preservation of endangered languages, not to promote dominant ones.
What is the primary goal of language revitalization?
Answer: To slow down or reverse the process of language death.
The fundamental objective of language revitalization is to actively intervene in the process of language decline, aiming to slow, halt, or reverse language death and ensure the continued vitality and transmission of endangered languages.
Which language revival is considered unique because it acquired new native speakers after being dormant for centuries?
Answer: Hebrew
The revival of Hebrew is unique in modern history as it transitioned from a liturgical and scholarly language, dormant as a vernacular for centuries, to becoming a living, native language for a new population in Israel.
According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, why is language reclamation becoming increasingly important?
Answer: To regain cultural autonomy, intellectual sovereignty, and improve well-being.
Ghil'ad Zuckermann emphasizes that language reclamation is crucial for indigenous and minority groups seeking to restore their cultural autonomy, assert intellectual sovereignty, and enhance their overall well-being by reconnecting with their linguistic heritage.
Which of the following is NOT one of Akira Yamamoto's factors for preventing language death?
Answer: Forced assimilation policies by the government.
Akira Yamamoto's factors for preventing language death focus on supportive societal and community conditions. Forced assimilation policies are antithetical to language preservation and actively contribute to language death.
What role does the United Nations play regarding endangered languages?
Answer: They highlight the critical state of many languages and the need for preservation.
The United Nations plays a role in raising awareness about the critical status of endangered languages globally, emphasizing the urgent need for preservation efforts and documenting the scale of potential language loss.
What is the primary purpose of the Endangered Languages Project?
Answer: To document endangered languages and share preservation research.
The Endangered Languages Project aims to serve as a central repository for information on endangered languages and to facilitate the sharing of research and best practices in language preservation efforts worldwide.
Old English is an example of a language that died through natural evolution rather than complete extinction.
Answer: True
Old English serves as a classic example of a language that underwent natural evolution, transforming into Middle English and subsequently Modern English. Its 'death' as Old English signifies its transformation, not its complete disappearance without a successor.
The Ainu language is currently thriving with numerous young native speakers.
Answer: False
The Ainu language is critically endangered, with its dialects facing extinction or severe endangerment, and it is not currently thriving with numerous young native speakers due to historical assimilation pressures.
The Hittite script on a clay tablet is mentioned as an example of a language that has undergone successful revitalization.
Answer: False
The Hittite script on a clay tablet is presented as an example of ancient written language, relevant to the historical study of languages, not as a case of successful revitalization.
The image of the last three speakers of Magati Ke visually represents a language on the verge of extinction.
Answer: True
The depiction of the final few speakers of Magati Ke serves as a powerful visual testament to a language critically endangered and on the precipice of extinction.
What is the status of the Ainu language's dialects according to the text?
Answer: The Hokkaido dialect is endangered, while others are extinct.
The Ainu language is critically endangered, with its Hokkaido dialect facing severe endangerment and its Sakhalin and Kuril dialects considered extinct, reflecting a severe decline due to historical pressures.
What does the source material imply about the Hittite script on a clay tablet?
Answer: It illustrates ancient written language, relevant to the history of languages.
The mention of Hittite script on a clay tablet serves to illustrate the existence of ancient written languages and their relevance to the historical trajectory of linguistic development and documentation.
What does the image of the last three speakers of Magati Ke visually represent?
Answer: A language on the brink of extinction.
The visual representation of the final speakers of Magati Ke powerfully symbolizes a language in its terminal phase, critically endangered and on the verge of complete extinction.
Which of the following is an example of a language that died through natural evolution rather than complete extinction?
Answer: Old English
Old English exemplifies a language that underwent natural evolution into Middle and Modern English, representing a transformation rather than complete extinction, as the lineage of speakers continued.