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Ontological arguments for the existence of God are primarily predicated upon empirical observation and scientific evidence.
Answer: False
Ontological arguments are deductive, relying on reason and the concept of being, rather than empirical evidence from the natural world.
Saint Anselm of Canterbury is recognized for presenting the first ontological argument within the Western Christian philosophical tradition.
Answer: True
Saint Anselm of Canterbury is widely credited with formulating the first ontological argument in the Western Christian philosophical tradition in his work, the 'Proslogion'.
Anselm's ontological argument is centered on the definition of God as 'a being than which no greater can be conceived.'
Answer: True
The core of Anselm's argument relies on the definition of God as 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived,' using this concept as the basis for inferring existence.
Anselm's argument suggests that if the greatest conceivable being existed only in the mind, then a greater being (one existing in reality) could logically be conceived.
Answer: True
This statement accurately reflects Anselm's reasoning: if the greatest conceivable being existed only in the mind, then a greater being (one existing in reality) could be conceived, leading to a logical contradiction.
In Chapter 3 of the Proslogion, Anselm's ontological argument shifts its focus to a being whose existence is characterized as necessary, rather than contingent or potentially ceasing.
Answer: True
Anselm's argument in Chapter 3 introduces the concept of necessary existence, arguing that a being whose existence is necessary is greater than one whose existence is contingent.
The concept of a 'necessary existent' refers to a being whose existence is contingent and dependent on external factors.
Answer: False
A 'necessary existent' is defined as a being whose existence is not contingent but is required by its own nature; its non-existence is logically impossible.
What is the fundamental nature of an ontological argument in philosophy?
Answer: A deductive argument relying on the concept of being or existence itself.
Ontological arguments are deductive philosophical arguments that attempt to establish God's existence based on a priori reasoning about the concept of God or existence itself.
Who is credited with originating the first ontological argument in the Western Christian tradition, and where did he present it?
Answer: Saint Anselm of Canterbury in 'Proslogion'.
Saint Anselm of Canterbury is credited with presenting the first ontological argument in the Western Christian tradition within his work titled 'Proslogion'.
How did Anselm define God in his ontological argument?
Answer: A being than which no greater can be conceived.
Anselm defined God as 'a being than which no greater can be conceived,' establishing the concept of a maximally great being as the subject of his argument.
What is the core logical step in Anselm's first ontological argument?
Answer: If God exists only in the mind, then a greater being (existing in reality) could be conceived, contradicting the definition.
The core logic posits that if the greatest conceivable being existed only in the mind, then a greater being (one existing in reality) could be conceived, which contradicts the initial definition, thus proving its necessary existence.
What distinction did Anselm make in Chapter 3 of the Proslogion regarding existence?
Answer: The difference between necessary existence and contingent existence.
In Chapter 3, Anselm distinguished between necessary existence (a being that cannot fail to exist) and contingent existence (a being that could potentially not exist).
The concept of a 'necessary existent' implies a being whose existence:
Answer: Is required by its own nature and cannot logically fail to exist.
A necessary existent is understood as a being whose existence is entailed by its very nature; its non-existence would be a logical impossibility.
René Descartes presented his version of the ontological argument in his work 'Meditation V'.
Answer: True
René Descartes articulated his ontological argument in the fifth of his 'Meditations on First Philosophy'.
Descartes argued that God's existence could be inferred from a vague and indistinct idea of a supremely perfect being.
Answer: False
Descartes argued that God's existence could be inferred from a *clear and distinct* idea of a supremely perfect being, not a vague one.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz addressed a potential flaw in Descartes' argument by asserting the coherence of the concept of a supremely perfect being.
Answer: True
Leibniz's contribution involved demonstrating the logical coherence of the concept of a supremely perfect being, thus validating a key premise in Descartes' argument.
Avicenna, an Islamic philosopher, developed an argument concluding there must be a 'contingent existent' whose existence depends on something else.
Answer: False
Avicenna, an influential Islamic philosopher, developed an argument that concluded there must exist a 'necessary existent,' whose existence is not dependent on anything else, rather than a contingent existent.
Mulla Sadra's Seddiqin Argument posits that existence is graded by imperfection, with God being the least existent.
Answer: False
Mulla Sadra's Seddiqin Argument posits that existence is graded by perfection, with God representing the highest degree of existence.
How did René Descartes present his ontological argument?
Answer: By arguing existence is a perfection inherent in the concept of God.
Descartes argued that existence is a perfection, and since God is defined as the supremely perfect being, existence must be part of God's essence.
What challenge did Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz address concerning Descartes' argument?
Answer: The possibility that the concept of a supremely perfect being might be incoherent.
Leibniz addressed the potential issue of whether the concept of a supremely perfect being is logically coherent, arguing that all perfections are compatible and can coexist.
Which Islamic philosopher proposed an argument for a 'necessary existent' that parallels Western ontological arguments?
Answer: Avicenna
Avicenna, an influential Islamic philosopher, developed an argument for a 'necessary existent' that shares conceptual similarities with Western ontological arguments.
Mulla Sadra's 'Seddiqin Argument' bases God's existence on which principle?
Answer: The graded reality and intensity of existence itself.
Mulla Sadra's Seddiqin Argument posits that existence is a singular reality that is graded by perfection, with God representing the highest degree of existence.
Norman Malcolm's interpretation suggested that Anselm's second ontological argument was actually weaker and more susceptible to criticism than the first.
Answer: False
Norman Malcolm's interpretation argued that Anselm's second ontological argument, focusing on necessary existence, was actually stronger and more resistant to criticism than the first formulation.
Friedrich Hegel agreed with Immanuel Kant's critique that the ontological argument fails because existence is not a real predicate.
Answer: False
Friedrich Hegel disagreed with Kant's critique, arguing that Kant's analogy of the '100 thaler' was flawed and that when God is understood as the totality of being, the ontological argument's logical necessity becomes apparent.
Gaunilo of Marmoutiers, a critic of Anselm, used the analogy of a 'perfect island' to challenge the ontological argument.
Answer: True
Gaunilo of Marmoutiers employed the analogy of a 'perfect island' in his critique of Anselm's argument, suggesting that the same logic could prove the existence of any conceivable perfect entity.
Gaunilo's objection implied that Anselm's reasoning could prove the existence of any conceivable *imperfect* entity.
Answer: False
Gaunilo's objection suggested that Anselm's reasoning could prove the existence of any conceivable *perfect* entity, not an imperfect one.
Anselm responded to Gaunilo by arguing his proof applied specifically to contingent entities like islands.
Answer: False
Anselm responded to Gaunilo by asserting that his proof applied specifically to entities possessing *necessary* existence, distinguishing them from contingent entities like islands.
Thomas Aquinas rejected the ontological argument because he believed humans possess complete knowledge of God's essence.
Answer: False
Thomas Aquinas rejected the ontological argument on the grounds that humans *cannot* fully know God's essence, which he considered a prerequisite for such an argument.
David Hume argued that existence is a perfection that inherently adds to the concept or essence of a being.
Answer: False
David Hume argued that existence is not a perfection and does not add to the concept or essence of a being; rather, it is a property that is either instantiated or not.
Immanuel Kant's central criticism is that 'existence is a real predicate' which adds a property to a concept.
Answer: False
Immanuel Kant's central criticism is that 'existence is *not* a real predicate,' meaning it does not add a property to the concept of a thing.
William L. Rowe argued that ontological arguments are logically sound and require no prior belief.
Answer: False
William L. Rowe argued that ontological arguments inherently 'beg the question,' implying they require a prior belief in God's existence to be accepted.
The 'coherence objection' questions whether the attributes commonly ascribed to God are logically compatible.
Answer: True
The coherence objection challenges the logical compatibility of divine attributes, such as omnipotence and omniscience, questioning whether they can coexist without contradiction.
In his later philosophical views, Bertrand Russell found the ontological argument to be highly convincing.
Answer: False
Bertrand Russell, in his later philosophical views, found the ontological argument unconvincing, distinguishing between the essence of a concept and its actual existence.
How did Friedrich Hegel view Kant's critique of the ontological argument?
Answer: Hegel believed Kant's '100 thaler' analogy was flawed because it compared finite entities incorrectly.
Hegel contended that Kant's critique, particularly the '100 thaler' analogy, incorrectly compared finite entities with God as the totality of being, thus misapplying the critique.
Gaunilo of Marmoutiers' famous objection to Anselm's argument involved which analogy?
Answer: A perfect island.
Gaunilo's most famous objection to Anselm's ontological argument utilized the analogy of a 'perfect island'.
How did Anselm differentiate his argument from Gaunilo's 'perfect island' objection?
Answer: He stated the argument applied only to concepts with necessary existence, not contingent ones.
Anselm contended that his argument applied specifically to beings with necessary existence, distinguishing them from contingent entities like islands, which could always be improved.
Thomas Aquinas rejected the ontological argument based on what limitation of human knowledge?
Answer: The inability to fully grasp God's essence.
Aquinas rejected the ontological argument because he believed humans lack the capacity to fully comprehend God's essence, which he considered necessary for the argument's validity.
What was David Hume's key objection regarding the concept of existence?
Answer: Existence is not a predicate that adds to a being's essence.
Hume argued that existence is not a predicate that adds to the concept of a thing; rather, it is the instantiation of that concept.
What is Immanuel Kant's famous critique of the ontological argument summarized as?
Answer: Existence is not a real predicate.
Kant's central critique is that existence is not a real predicate; it does not add anything to the concept of a thing.
According to Kant, if 'God exists' were an analytic proposition, what would be the consequence for the argument?
Answer: It would be a mere tautology, not proving actual existence.
Kant argued that if 'God exists' were an analytic proposition, it would be a tautology, merely stating what is already contained within the concept of God, and thus would not prove actual existence.
William L. Rowe's critique suggests that ontological arguments commit which logical fallacy?
Answer: Begging the question
William L. Rowe argued that ontological arguments commit the fallacy of 'begging the question,' meaning they presuppose what they are trying to prove.
What does the 'coherence objection' challenge regarding God's attributes?
Answer: Their logical compatibility with each other.
The coherence objection challenges whether the attributes commonly ascribed to God, such as omnipotence and omniscience, are logically compatible and can coexist without contradiction.
What was Bertrand Russell's later assessment of the ontological argument?
Answer: He found it unconvincing, distinguishing essence from existence.
Bertrand Russell later found the ontological argument unconvincing, asserting that the essence of a concept does not guarantee its existence.
Modal versions of the ontological argument utilize principles of deontic logic, which deals with obligation and permission.
Answer: False
Modal versions of the ontological argument utilize principles of *modal logic*, which deals with possibility and necessity, not deontic logic.
Kurt Gödel formulated a formal ontological argument using modal logic, defining a 'God-like' being as one possessing all positive properties.
Answer: True
Kurt Gödel developed a formal ontological argument employing modal logic, defining a 'God-like' being as one possessing all positive properties.
Alvin Plantinga argued that a maximally great being must possess maximal excellence in *some* possible world, but not necessarily all.
Answer: False
Alvin Plantinga argued that a maximally great being must possess maximal excellence in *all* possible worlds, not just some.
Plantinga differentiated 'maximal excellence' (properties in a specific world) from 'maximal greatness' (maximal excellence in all possible worlds).
Answer: True
Alvin Plantinga distinguished between 'maximal excellence,' referring to the highest degree of properties within a particular possible world, and 'maximal greatness,' which denotes maximal excellence across all possible worlds.
Automated theorem provers have been used to disprove the logical validity of Anselm's ontological argument.
Answer: False
Automated theorem provers have sometimes validated the logical structure of certain ontological arguments, occasionally finding simpler formalizations, rather than disproving their validity.
Norman Malcolm's interpretation focused on which aspect of Anselm's argument as being particularly strong?
Answer: Its focus on God's necessary existence.
Norman Malcolm's influential interpretation highlighted the strength of Anselm's argument concerning God's necessary existence, arguing it was immune to certain criticisms.
What type of logic is central to modal versions of the ontological argument?
Answer: Modal logic (dealing with possibility and necessity)
Modal versions of the ontological argument fundamentally rely on modal logic, which formalizes reasoning about possibility, necessity, and contingency.
Kurt Gödel developed a formal ontological argument using which logical framework?
Answer: Modal logic.
Kurt Gödel's formal ontological argument was constructed using the framework of modal logic.
What was Alvin Plantinga's main criticism regarding maximal greatness in modal arguments?
Answer: Maximal greatness must be possessed necessarily across *all* possible worlds.
Plantinga argued that for a being to be maximally great, it must possess maximal excellence in all possible worlds, not merely in some.
What role have automated theorem provers played in the study of ontological arguments?
Answer: They have validated the logical structure of certain arguments, sometimes finding simpler forms.
Automated theorem provers have been employed to rigorously test the logical structure of ontological arguments, sometimes confirming their validity within formal systems or discovering more concise formulations.
Douglas Gasking proposed an argument suggesting that God's non-existence would be a greater achievement for the creator.
Answer: True
Douglas Gasking proposed a satirical argument suggesting that if existence is a perfection, then a creator who achieved the world's creation while being non-existent would be greater, implying God's non-existence.
The 'devil corollary' parody attempts to logically prove the existence of a being than which nothing *worse* can be conceived.
Answer: True
The 'devil corollary' is a parody of the ontological argument that attempts to prove the existence of a maximally evil being, i.e., a being than which nothing worse can be conceived.
The Kalam cosmological argument begins with the premise that the universe has always existed.
Answer: False
The Kalam cosmological argument begins with the premise that the universe *began* to exist, not that it has always existed.
The 'devil corollary' parody challenges Anselm's argument by attempting to prove the existence of what?
Answer: A being than which nothing worse can be conceived.
The 'devil corollary' parody aims to demonstrate the existence of a maximally evil being, i.e., a being than which nothing worse can be conceived, by mirroring Anselm's logic.
Which argument begins with the premise that the universe began to exist?
Answer: The Kalam cosmological argument.
The Kalam cosmological argument is predicated on the premise that the universe began to exist.
Pascal's Wager suggests that believing in God is rational primarily because:
Answer: The potential infinite gain of belief outweighs any finite loss.
Pascal's Wager is a pragmatic argument asserting that the potential infinite reward of believing in God outweighs any finite cost or loss associated with disbelief.
The 'problem of evil' challenges the existence of God based on the apparent conflict between:
Answer: The existence of evil and God's purported attributes (omnipotence, goodness, etc.).
The problem of evil highlights the apparent tension between the existence of evil and suffering in the world and the traditional attributes of God, such as omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence.
What is the primary function of Russell's Teapot analogy in philosophical debate?
Answer: To place the burden of proof on the claimant making an assertion.
Russell's Teapot analogy serves to illustrate that the burden of proof lies with the person making an extraordinary claim (e.g., about God's existence), rather than requiring others to disprove it.
The 'God of the gaps' criticism is directed at arguments that:
Answer: Attribute unexplained phenomena solely to divine action.
The 'God of the gaps' criticism targets arguments that invoke divine action to explain phenomena that are currently not understood scientifically, suggesting this approach diminishes as scientific knowledge expands.
How does the 'argument from desire' propose God's existence?
Answer: By suggesting deep human desires imply a corresponding fulfillment, likely divine.
The argument from desire posits that deep-seated human desires, particularly for ultimate fulfillment, imply the existence of a corresponding object or reality capable of satisfying them, often identified as God.