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Pelagianism asserts that human nature is inherently corrupted by original sin, necessitating divine grace for all virtuous actions.
Answer: False
This statement contradicts the fundamental tenets of Pelagianism. Pelagius maintained that human nature is not inherently corrupted by original sin and that individuals possess the free will and capacity to perform good deeds, with divine grace serving as an external aid rather than an indispensable internal necessity.
A central tenet of Pelagian thought is that infants are born devoid of original sin, rendering them blameless at birth.
Answer: True
This accurately reflects Pelagius's position. He argued against the inherited guilt of Adam's sin, positing that infants enter the world in the same state of innocence as Adam before the Fall, possessing free will and moral accountability from birth.
According to Pelagius, Adam's transgression corrupted human nature for all subsequent generations.
Answer: False
Pelagius posited that Adam's transgression introduced mortality and provided a negative example, but it did not corrupt human nature itself or transmit original sin to his descendants. Infants, therefore, were born without this inherited corruption.
Pelagius believed that divine grace was an internal, transformative power absolutely necessary for salvation.
Answer: False
Pelagius acknowledged divine grace but primarily conceptualized it as external aids, such as God's law, revelation, and the example of Christ, rather than an internal, irresistible force essential for salvation. His emphasis remained on human capacity and free will.
Pelagius taught that it was impossible for humans to live a sinless life.
Answer: False
Contrary to this statement, Pelagius believed that it was theoretically possible, though rare, for individuals to live sinless lives through the diligent exercise of their free will and adherence to divine commandments.
Pelagius supported infant baptism solely as a means to cleanse original sin.
Answer: False
Pelagius rejected the necessity of infant baptism for cleansing original sin, as he did not subscribe to the doctrine of original sin. However, he did support infant baptism as a means to enhance spiritual development through union with Christ.
Pelagius believed that good works were unimportant for Christian living, focusing instead on faith alone.
Answer: False
Pelagius placed significant emphasis on the importance of good works and the active pursuit of virtue as integral components of Christian life. He believed that Christians were obligated to strive for perfection through their actions.
Pelagius believed that only Jesus Christ was capable of living a sinless life.
Answer: False
Pelagius maintained that while Christ was the ultimate example, other individuals, including prophets and even some pagans, had also achieved sinless lives through their own efforts and free will. This contrasted with Augustine's view that only Christ was sinless.
Pelagianism addressed the problem of evil by attributing it solely to demonic influence.
Answer: False
Pelagianism primarily attributed the problem of evil and human suffering to the exercise of libertarian free will, which was considered a sufficient good to justify its existence. This perspective questioned the necessity of Christ's atonement for inherited sin.
Pelagianism posits salvation is achieved solely through God's sovereign grace, irrespective of human merit.
Answer: False
This statement describes Augustinianism, not Pelagianism. Pelagianism emphasized human free will and the capacity to achieve salvation through virtuous actions and adherence to divine law, viewing grace as an external aid rather than the sole determinant of salvation.
Pelagius taught that sin was an inevitable consequence of human nature, regardless of individual choice.
Answer: False
Pelagius argued that sin was not an inevitable consequence of human nature but rather the result of deliberate free choice and the formation of bad habits. He believed that if sin were inevitable, it could not truly be considered sin.
Pelagius viewed death as a punishment directly resulting from Adam's sin.
Answer: False
Pelagius did not view death as a direct punishment for Adam's sin. He posited that Adam's transgression introduced mortality and provided a negative example, but death itself was not necessarily a consequence of inherited sin. He also taught that the fear of death could be overcome by devout Christians.
Pelagianism rejected the doctrine of predestination, emphasizing human free will and responsibility.
Answer: True
A core element of Pelagian theology was its rejection of predestination, which it viewed as incompatible with human free will and moral responsibility. This stance stood in direct opposition to Augustine's strong affirmation of divine election.
Pelagius believed that God's commandments were impossible for humans to fulfill without extraordinary divine intervention.
Answer: False
Pelagius argued that God's commandments must be fulfillable by humans. He believed that through free will and diligent effort, individuals could indeed keep God's commands, rendering extraordinary divine intervention unnecessary for obedience.
What is the fundamental assertion of Pelagian theology concerning the state of human nature post-Fall and the capacity for moral action?
Answer: Human nature remains uncorrupted by the Fall; individuals possess free will and the capacity to achieve moral perfection through their own efforts.
This option accurately encapsulates Pelagius's core assertion: that the Fall did not fundamentally corrupt human nature, thereby preserving free will and the capacity for individuals to achieve moral perfection through their own volitional efforts, aided by divine revelation and example.
According to Pelagius, what was the primary consequence of Adam's transgression?
Answer: It introduced mortality and provided a negative example for humanity.
Pelagius contended that Adam's transgression primarily resulted in mortality and served as a detrimental precedent, rather than corrupting human nature itself or transmitting original sin to subsequent generations.
How did Pelagius primarily understand the role of divine grace?
Answer: As an external aid, such as God's law, revelation, and Jesus' example.
Pelagius viewed divine grace primarily as external assistance—comprising God's law, divine revelation, and the exemplary life of Jesus Christ—which illuminated the path to righteousness but did not compel or guarantee salvation independently of human volition.
Which statement best reflects Pelagius' view on the possibility of living a sinless life?
Answer: While rare, individuals possess the free will and capacity to live sinless lives.
Pelagius maintained that human beings, endowed with free will, possessed the capacity to live without sin. While acknowledging its difficulty and rarity, he asserted that sinlessness was an achievable state through consistent moral choice and effort.
What was Pelagius' reason for rejecting the doctrine of original sin?
Answer: He considered it unjust to hold individuals responsible for Adam's sin.
Pelagius rejected original sin on grounds of justice, arguing that it was inequitable to impute Adam's sin to his descendants, thereby holding individuals accountable for transgressions not their own. He emphasized personal responsibility for one's actions.
What did Pelagius teach about the necessity of good works?
Answer: Good works are essential for true Christian living and striving for perfection.
Pelagius strongly advocated for the essential role of good works in Christian life. He believed that all Christians, regardless of their station, were called to actively pursue virtue and strive for perfection through their actions.
How did Pelagius view the practice of infant baptism?
Answer: He supported it as a means to improve spirituality through union with Jesus.
While Pelagius rejected the notion that infant baptism was necessary to cleanse original sin (as he denied original sin), he did endorse the practice as a means to foster spiritual growth and a closer relationship with Jesus Christ.
What was the Pelagian perspective on the cause of evil and suffering?
Answer: It was a consequence of libertarian free will, which itself was a good.
Pelagianism posited that evil and suffering arose from the exercise of libertarian free will, an inherent good bestowed by God. This perspective implied that the existence of evil was a necessary byproduct of freedom, rather than an inherent corruption of nature.
What was Pelagius' teaching on the nature of sin itself?
Answer: Sin is a result of deliberate free choice and the formation of bad habits.
Pelagius posited that sin was not an inherent condition of human nature but rather the outcome of conscious, volitional choices and the cultivation of detrimental habits. He argued that if sin were inevitable, it would undermine the concept of moral responsibility.
How did Pelagius view the Old and New Testaments in relation to human behavior?
Answer: Both Testaments served as guides for human action and moral improvement.
Pelagius considered both the Old Testament Law and the New Testament revelation as essential guides for human conduct. He believed they provided the necessary framework and instruction for individuals to understand and pursue righteous living through their own efforts.
What was the Pelagian justification for the justice of God's judgment?
Answer: God's judgment is just because humans possess absolute free will and responsibility.
From the Pelagian perspective, God's judgment was inherently just because humans were understood to possess absolute free will and were therefore fully accountable for their choices. Actions and their consequences, including punishment, were seen as deserved outcomes of individual responsibility.
How did Pelagius' teachings on human nature align with classical philosophy?
Answer: They drew from ideas of personal autonomy and self-improvement.
Pelagius's emphasis on human capacity, rational discernment, and the pursuit of virtue through personal effort shows an alignment with classical philosophical traditions that valued personal autonomy and the potential for moral self-improvement.
According to Pelagius, what was the role of Jesus Christ in salvation?
Answer: Primarily to provide a perfect example of sinless living.
While Pelagius acknowledged Christ's atoning sacrifice and the significance of baptism, his primary emphasis was on Christ's role as the ultimate exemplar of a sinless life, demonstrating the possibility of human perfection and providing a moral guide for believers to follow through their own efforts.
Augustine of Hippo was the primary proponent of Pelagianism, emphasizing human free will over divine grace.
Answer: False
Augustine of Hippo was, in fact, the most prominent opponent of Pelagianism. He strongly advocated for the doctrine of original sin and the absolute necessity of divine grace for salvation, contrasting sharply with Pelagius's emphasis on human free will and capacity.
Jerome was a key supporter of Pelagianism, writing extensively in its defense.
Answer: False
Jerome was a prominent opponent of Pelagianism. He authored significant polemical works, such as 'Dialogus adversus Pelagianos' (Dialogue Against the Pelagians), in direct opposition to Pelagian doctrines.
Caelestius, a follower of Pelagius, argued that Adam was created mortal, further distancing the concept from inherited sin.
Answer: True
Caelestius, a principal disciple of Pelagius, advanced arguments such as Adam being created mortal, which served to further dissociate the consequences of the Fall from an inherited, corrupting sin passed down through generations.
Augustine criticized Pelagius' concept of virtue as being too focused on divine intervention.
Answer: False
Augustine's criticism was precisely the opposite: he argued that Pelagius's concept of virtue was too focused on human effort and intellect ('Ciceronian'), potentially downplaying the indispensable role of divine grace.
Pelagius' *Commentary on Romans* was criticized for its adherence to the Greek tradition of interpreting Paul's epistles.
Answer: False
Pelagius's *Commentary on Romans* was noted for its adherence to the Greek tradition of interpreting Paul's epistles, which was seen as a strength by some, but it became a key text in the controversy, not primarily criticized for this adherence.
Who was Pelagius, and what was his general time period?
Answer: An ascetic philosopher from the British Isles living around the late 4th and early 5th centuries AD.
Pelagius is identified as an ascetic theologian originating from the British Isles, active during the late 4th and early 5th centuries AD. His teachings challenged prevailing views on original sin and divine grace.
Who was a prominent opponent of Pelagianism, known for his writings against it?
Answer: Jerome
Jerome, renowned for his biblical scholarship and translation of the Vulgate, was a staunch opponent of Pelagianism. He authored significant polemical works, such as 'Dialogus adversus Pelagianos,' directly challenging Pelagian doctrines.
Which of the following was NOT a key opponent of Pelagianism?
Answer: Caelestius
Caelestius was a prominent follower and proponent of Pelagianism, not an opponent. Augustine, Jerome, and Orosius were all significant figures who actively opposed Pelagian doctrines.
Augustine's criticism of Pelagian virtue as 'Ciceronian' implied what?
Answer: It overemphasized human intellect and will, potentially downplaying divine grace.
By characterizing Pelagian virtue as 'Ciceronian,' Augustine implied that it relied too heavily on classical philosophical ideals of human reason and self-sufficiency, potentially neglecting the indispensable role of divine grace in achieving true Christian virtue and salvation.
What was the significance of Pelagius' *Commentary on Romans*?
Answer: It was admired for its adherence to the Greek tradition of interpreting Paul and became key in the controversy.
Pelagius's *Commentary on Romans* was a significant work that circulated widely, often under pseudonyms. It was noted for its engagement with the Greek exegetical tradition concerning Paul's epistles and became a central text in the theological controversies surrounding his teachings.
What role did Caelestius play in the Pelagian controversy?
Answer: He was a key follower of Pelagius, often described as the 'real apostle' of the movement.
Caelestius was a principal disciple and ardent proponent of Pelagius's teachings. He was instrumental in disseminating these ideas and was himself condemned by church councils for his theological positions, particularly concerning original sin.
Semi-Pelagianism fully embraced Pelagius's teachings on original sin and divine grace.
Answer: False
Semi-Pelagianism represents a theological position that emerged later, acknowledging the condemnation of Pelagianism but retaining a stronger emphasis on human free will in initiating salvation than Augustine's doctrines allowed. It did not fully embrace Pelagius's original teachings.
Pelagius's views on human nature and free will were considered more aligned with the theological traditions of Eastern Christianity.
Answer: True
Indeed, Pelagius's emphasis on human capacity and free will resonated more closely with the generally more optimistic views of human nature prevalent in Eastern Christian theological traditions, which contrasted with the developing Western emphasis on original sin and divine sovereignty.
The accusation of 'Judaizing' against Pelagianism stemmed from its emphasis on divine election and predestination.
Answer: False
The 'Judaizing' accusation arose because Pelagianism's focus on human choice, adherence to law, and the capacity for righteousness bore resemblances to certain aspects of Jewish theology, rather than its emphasis on predestination, which was a core Augustinian doctrine Pelagius rejected.
Pelagianism's emphasis on human capability contrasted with Augustine's view of humanity's complete dependence on God's grace.
Answer: True
This accurately captures the central divergence. Pelagianism championed human capacity and free will for achieving righteousness, whereas Augustine stressed humanity's fallen state and absolute dependence on God's unmerited grace for salvation.
What was the central point of contention between Pelagius and Augustine of Hippo?
Answer: The existence of original sin and the necessity of divine grace for salvation.
The primary theological dispute between Pelagius and Augustine revolved around the nature and consequences of original sin, and consequently, the role and necessity of divine grace in achieving salvation. Augustine emphasized inherited sin and prevenient grace, while Pelagius stressed human capacity and free will.
What does 'Semi-Pelagianism' represent in relation to Pelagianism?
Answer: A later theological position that accepted Pelagianism's condemnation but retained a stronger emphasis on human free will than Augustine.
Semi-Pelagianism emerged as a distinct theological stance that, while acknowledging the condemnation of Pelagianism, sought a middle ground by affirming a greater role for human free will in initiating salvation compared to the strict Augustinian view of predestination and irresistible grace.
How did Pelagius' views on human nature compare to those typically held in Eastern Christianity?
Answer: More positive, sharing similarities with Eastern views on human nature.
Pelagius's emphasis on human capacity, free will, and the inherent goodness of creation aligned more closely with the theological perspectives generally found in Eastern Christianity, which tended to hold a more optimistic view of human nature compared to the developing Augustinian emphasis on original sin in the West.
Why was Pelagianism accused of 'Judaizing'?
Answer: Because its emphasis on human choice and adherence to law resembled aspects of Jewish theology.
The accusation of 'Judaizing' was leveled against Pelagianism due to its strong emphasis on human capacity to follow divine law through free will, a characteristic perceived by its critics as more aligned with certain interpretations of Jewish theology than with the prevailing Christian understanding of grace and inherited sin.
How does Pelagianism's view on salvation differ fundamentally from Augustinianism?
Answer: Pelagianism emphasizes human choice and merit, while Augustinianism emphasizes God's sovereign grace.
The fundamental divergence lies in their understanding of salvation: Pelagianism posits that salvation is achieved through human volitional effort, merit, and adherence to divine law, with grace as an external aid. Augustinianism, conversely, asserts that salvation is solely the product of God's sovereign, unmerited grace, bestowed irrespective of human merit due to humanity's fallen state.
Pelagianism's rejection of predestination contrasted sharply with which theological concept?
Answer: Augustine's strong affirmation of predestination
Pelagianism's emphasis on human free will and responsibility directly opposed Augustine's robust doctrine of predestination, which asserted God's sovereign election of individuals for salvation, independent of human merit or choice.
What theological concept did Pelagianism directly challenge that was central to Augustinian theology?
Answer: The doctrine of original sin
Pelagianism fundamentally challenged the doctrine of original sin, which was a cornerstone of Augustinian theology. By denying the inherited corruption of human nature, Pelagius undermined the Augustinian premise for the necessity of divine grace and predestination.
Pelagianism was formally condemned as heresy at the Council of Carthage in 418 AD.
Answer: True
The Council of Carthage in 418 AD issued condemnations against Pelagian doctrines, marking a significant moment in the formal rejection of Pelagianism as heretical within Western Christianity.
The emergence of Pelagianism coincided with a period of rapid change and increased nominal adherence in Christianity following the Constantinian shift.
Answer: True
Pelagianism arose during the 4th and 5th centuries, a period of rapid Christianization following the Constantinian shift. Concerns about nominal adherence and a perceived need to re-emphasize moral rigor and personal responsibility likely contributed to Pelagius's theological positions.
The Council of Carthage in 411 AD condemned Caelestius for his theological positions.
Answer: True
Caelestius was indeed condemned by a council held in Carthage in 411 AD due to his theological views, which were closely aligned with those of Pelagius, particularly concerning original sin and grace.
The controversy surrounding Pelagianism helped solidify the doctrine of original sin in Western Christianity.
Answer: True
The intense theological debates spurred by Pelagianism were instrumental in the definitive establishment and articulation of the doctrine of original sin and the necessity of divine grace within Western Christian orthodoxy.
The Synod of Diospolis in 415 AD acquitted Pelagius after he renounced certain teachings.
Answer: True
At the Synod of Diospolis in 415 AD, Pelagius was indeed acquitted. This occurred after he disavowed certain doctrines attributed to him and Caelestius, though this outcome was later contested by Augustine and his supporters.
The condemnation of Pelagianism at the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD linked it to Nestorian Christological views.
Answer: True
The Council of Ephesus in 431 AD, while primarily addressing Christological issues, also saw condemnations that implicitly or explicitly linked Pelagian theological errors with Nestorianism, further solidifying the rejection of Pelagianism.
At which council was Pelagianism formally condemned as heresy?
Answer: Council of Carthage (418 AD)
While various synods addressed Pelagianism, the Council of Carthage in 418 AD issued significant condemnations that formally classified Pelagian doctrines as heretical within the Western Church.
Which historical context is cited as influencing the emergence of Pelagianism?
Answer: The rapid changes in Christianity following the Constantinian shift.
The emergence of Pelagianism is often contextualized within the significant societal and religious transformations occurring after Emperor Constantine's conversion and the Edict of Milan. This period saw Christianity move from a persecuted minority to a favored religion, leading to concerns about nominalism and a perceived need for renewed emphasis on moral discipline.
What was the outcome of the Synod of Diospolis in 415 AD concerning Pelagius?
Answer: Pelagius was acquitted after disavowing certain teachings attributed to Caelestius.
At the Synod of Diospolis, Pelagius presented a statement of faith and disavowed certain doctrines associated with him and Caelestius. This led to his acquittal by the synod, although this decision was later challenged and overturned by papal pronouncements and subsequent councils.
Modern scholarship generally agrees that Pelagius' doctrines were entirely novel and unprecedented.
Answer: False
Contemporary scholarly assessment suggests that Pelagius's doctrines were not entirely novel but shared similarities with other theological viewpoints of his era, particularly within the Greek tradition. This has led to nuanced discussions regarding the historical context and severity of his condemnation.
John Locke and John Milton engaged with Pelagian concepts, influencing their views on human reason and autonomy.
Answer: True
Indeed, Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke and John Milton drew upon or engaged with ideas resonant with Pelagianism, particularly concerning human reason, autonomy, and the capacity for self-improvement, influencing subsequent philosophical and theological discourse.
Modern scholarship suggests Pelagius' doctrines were:
Answer: Similar to some contemporary theologians, especially in the Greek tradition.
Contemporary scholarly analysis indicates that Pelagius's theological positions were not entirely unprecedented but shared commonalities with other theologians of his time, particularly within the Eastern (Greek-speaking) Christian tradition, suggesting a more complex intellectual landscape than previously assumed.
Which early modern thinkers engaged with Pelagian concepts, emphasizing human reason and autonomy?
Answer: John Milton and John Locke
Thinkers such as John Milton and John Locke, prominent figures in the early modern period, engaged with concepts that resonated with Pelagianism, particularly their emphasis on human reason, autonomy, and the capacity for self-improvement, which influenced subsequent philosophical and political thought.
What was the ultimate fate of Pelagianism as a distinct theological movement in the West?
Answer: It ceased to be a viable or recognized doctrine after condemnation.
Following its formal condemnation by church councils and papal decrees, Pelagianism was officially rejected and ceased to exist as a recognized or viable theological movement within the Western Church, although its underlying ideas have periodically resurfaced in various forms.