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Total Categories: 6
Pepper spray is primarily derived from plants in the *Solanum* genus.
Answer: False
The primary active ingredient in pepper spray, capsaicin, is derived from plants in the *Capsicum* genus (chili peppers), not the *Solanum* genus, which includes plants like potatoes and tomatoes.
The active ingredient in pepper spray, capsaicin, is a chemical compound found in chili peppers.
Answer: True
Capsaicin is indeed the principal chemical compound responsible for the irritant effects of pepper spray, and it is naturally occurring in chili peppers (*Capsicum* genus).
Pepper spray is exclusively used for self-defense by individuals.
Answer: False
While self-defense is a common application, pepper spray is also widely employed by law enforcement for riot and crowd control, and for protection against aggressive animals.
Oleoresin capsicum (OC) is extracted using an acidic solvent like hydrochloric acid.
Answer: False
Oleoresin capsicum (OC) is extracted from chili peppers using an organic solvent, typically ethanol, not an acidic solvent like hydrochloric acid.
An emulsifier like propylene glycol is used to suspend OC in water for aerosol sprays.
Answer: True
Propylene glycol, acting as an emulsifier, is crucial for creating a stable suspension of oleoresin capsicum (OC) within the water-based carrier used in aerosol pepper spray formulations.
The 'Chemical agents sidebar' categorizes agents into Lethal and Incapacitating agents.
Answer: True
The 'Chemical agents sidebar' broadly classifies agents into two main categories: Lethal agents and Incapacitating agents, with further subcategories within each.
Tabun (GA) and Sarin (GB) are examples of V-series nerve agents.
Answer: False
Tabun (GA) and Sarin (GB) are classified as G-series nerve agents, distinct from the V-series nerve agents.
Chlorine and Phosgene are examples of vomiting agents.
Answer: False
Chlorine and Phosgene are classified as pulmonary or choking agents, affecting the respiratory system, not vomiting agents. Vomiting agents include substances like Adamsite.
CN gas and CS gas are listed as lachrymatory agents.
Answer: True
CN (phenacyl chloride) and CS gas are indeed classified as lachrymatory agents, known for causing eye irritation and tearing.
What is the primary active ingredient in pepper spray?
Answer: Capsaicin
Capsaicin is the principal active component in pepper spray, responsible for its irritant properties. Oleoresin capsicum (OC) is the extract containing capsaicin.
Which of the following is NOT a common purpose for the use of pepper spray?
Answer: Use as a lethal weapon in warfare
Pepper spray is classified as a less-lethal agent and is prohibited for use in warfare under international conventions. Its common uses include law enforcement, animal deterrence, and personal self-defense.
What is the process for extracting Oleoresin Capsicum (OC)?
Answer: Grinding chili peppers and extracting capsaicin using an organic solvent like ethanol.
Oleoresin capsicum (OC) is produced by grinding chili peppers and then extracting the capsaicinoids using an organic solvent, typically ethanol, followed by solvent evaporation.
What is the role of propylene glycol in pepper spray formulation?
Answer: It is used to suspend oleoresin capsicum (OC) in water.
Propylene glycol functions as an emulsifier, enabling the hydrophobic oleoresin capsicum (OC) to be uniformly dispersed and suspended within the aqueous carrier of the spray.
What are the main categories of chemical agents listed in the 'Chemical agents sidebar'?
Answer: Lethal agents and Incapacitating agents.
The 'Chemical agents sidebar' categorizes agents primarily into Lethal agents and Incapacitating agents, with further classifications within these groups.
Which of the following is an example of a G-series nerve agent?
Answer: Tabun (GA)
Tabun (GA) is recognized as a G-series nerve agent. VX is a V-series agent, and EA-3148 is also a V-series agent. BZ is an incapacitating agent.
What are the common effects of pulmonary/choking agents like Chlorine and Phosgene?
Answer: Damage to the respiratory system and lungs.
Pulmonary or choking agents, such as Chlorine and Phosgene, primarily target and damage the respiratory system, leading to severe lung injury.
What is the purpose of vomiting agents like Adamsite?
Answer: To induce vomiting and incapacitation.
Vomiting agents, such as Adamsite, are designed to induce nausea, vomiting, and subsequent incapacitation through irritation of the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Pepper spray causes temporary blindness by irritating the eyes and mucous membranes.
Answer: True
The intense inflammatory response triggered by capsaicin in the eyes leads to involuntary closure, pain, and temporary visual impairment, commonly referred to as temporary blindness.
A single exposure to OC spray in the eye can cause lasting damage to visual acuity.
Answer: False
Research indicates that while repeated exposure may alter corneal sensitivity, a single exposure to OC spray in the eye does not typically result in lasting damage to visual acuity.
Repeated exposure to OC spray in the eye may lead to long-lasting changes in corneal sensitivity.
Answer: True
Studies suggest that cumulative exposure to OC spray can indeed result in persistent alterations to the sensitivity of the cornea.
The 'hydraulic needle' effect of pepper spray refers to its potential to cause severe eye irritation at close range.
Answer: True
The 'hydraulic needle' effect describes how a concentrated, high-pressure stream of pepper spray at close range can cause particularly severe irritation to the eye.
For first-time users, the acute response to pepper spray is often described as a mild tingling sensation.
Answer: False
The acute response to pepper spray, particularly for first-time users, is typically characterized by intense burning, searing pain, involuntary eye closure, and respiratory distress, rather than a mild tingling.
The full effects of pepper spray typically last between 2 to 4 hours.
Answer: False
While residual irritation may persist longer, the primary incapacitating effects of pepper spray typically subside within 20 to 90 minutes, not 2 to 4 hours.
How does pepper spray primarily affect the eyes?
Answer: Induces immediate closing due to intense burning and temporary blindness
The capsaicin in pepper spray causes severe irritation and inflammation of the eyes, leading to involuntary closure, intense burning, and temporary visual impairment.
According to a study in the Journal of Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, what is a potential long-term effect of repeated OC spray exposure to the eyes?
Answer: Long-lasting changes in corneal sensitivity.
Research suggests that repeated ocular exposure to OC spray may result in persistent alterations to the sensitivity of the cornea, although permanent visual acuity reduction is not typically observed from single exposures.
The 'hydraulic needle' effect of pepper spray refers to:
Answer: The potential for close-range spray to cause severe eye irritation via a concentrated stream.
The 'hydraulic needle' effect describes the intense ocular irritation caused by a direct, high-pressure stream of pepper spray applied at close proximity.
How is the acute response to pepper spray often described for first-time users?
Answer: Intense searing pain, involuntary eye closure, and restricted airways.
First-time exposure to pepper spray typically elicits an immediate and severe reaction, including intense burning pain, forced eyelid closure, and difficulty breathing due to irritation of the respiratory tract.
How long can eye irritation from pepper spray persist?
Answer: Up to 24 hours.
While the primary incapacitating effects usually resolve within an hour or two, residual eye irritation, redness, and discomfort from pepper spray exposure can persist for up to 24 hours.
What are the main categories of TRP channel modulators mentioned in the text?
Answer: TRPA, TRPC, TRPM, TRPML, TRPV
The text lists the primary categories of Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channel modulators as TRPA, TRPC, TRPM, TRPML, and TRPV.
Which natural compound, found in chili peppers, is listed as an activator for TRPV channels?
Answer: Capsaicin
Capsaicin, the compound responsible for the heat in chili peppers, is identified as a key activator of TRPV channels.
Manufacturers' claims about pepper spray potency are strictly regulated and standardized across the industry.
Answer: False
The potency claims made by pepper spray manufacturers are not subject to stringent industry-wide regulation or standardization, leading to variability and difficulty in direct comparison.
CRC, meaning Capsaicin and Related Compounds, is used to measure the pain-producing components in OC.
Answer: True
CRC (Capsaicin and Related Compounds) is a metric used to quantify the concentration of the specific chemical compounds within Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) that are responsible for its irritant and pain-inducing effects.
Personal pepper sprays typically range from 0.18% to 3% CRC content.
Answer: True
According to regulatory standards, personal defense pepper sprays generally contain between 0.18% and 3% CRC content.
The Scoville scale is always a reliable measure for determining the exact strength of diluted pepper spray.
Answer: False
The Scoville scale measures the heat of the raw oleoresin capsicum (OC) resin. It is not always a reliable indicator of the final product's strength, as dilution and formulation significantly alter the perceived heat in the spray.
PAVA spray is an alternative riot control agent used by police in the United States.
Answer: False
PAVA spray is primarily utilized by law enforcement in the United Kingdom as an alternative to pepper spray.
PAVA spray is used by police officers in the United Kingdom.
Answer: True
PAVA spray, chemically known as desmethyldihydrocapsaicin, is a standard issue incapacitant for police officers in the United Kingdom.
The Scoville scale rating for law enforcement grade pepper spray is typically between 50,000 and 200,000 SHU.
Answer: False
Law enforcement grade pepper spray typically registers much higher on the Scoville scale, generally ranging from 500,000 to 2,000,000 SHU.
Mace historically used chloroacetophenone (CN) as its primary active ingredient, while modern Mace may also contain OC.
Answer: True
The brand Mace initially utilized chloroacetophenone (CN) as its active agent. Contemporary Mace formulations may incorporate oleoresin capsicum (OC) alongside or instead of CN.
Why is it difficult to compare the strength of pepper sprays from different manufacturers?
Answer: Manufacturers' claims about potency are not regulated.
The lack of standardized regulation for potency claims means that direct comparisons between products from different manufacturers can be unreliable due to variations in formulation and concentration.
What does CRC measure in relation to pepper spray?
Answer: The pain-producing components (capsaicin and related compounds).
CRC, or Capsaicin and Related Compounds, quantifies the specific chemical constituents within Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) that are responsible for the burning sensation and irritant effects.
Why is the Scoville scale often unreliable for measuring the potency of the final pepper spray product?
Answer: It measures the strength of the dry OC resin, not the diluted final spray.
The Scoville scale accurately reflects the heat of the raw OC resin but does not account for the significant dilution that occurs in the final pepper spray formulation, making it an unreliable measure of the product's actual potency.
PAVA spray is primarily used by police officers in which country?
Answer: United Kingdom
PAVA spray is a standard issue incapacitant for police officers in the United Kingdom.
What is the typical Scoville scale rating for pepper spray used by law enforcement?
Answer: 500,000 to 2,000,000 SHU
Law enforcement grade pepper spray typically falls within the range of 500,000 to 2,000,000 Scoville Heat Units (SHU).
What is the difference between pepper spray and Mace, according to the text?
Answer: Pepper spray uses OC, while Mace historically used CN, though modern Mace may also contain OC.
Pepper spray's active ingredient is Oleoresin Capsicum (OC). Historically, Mace utilized Chloroacetophenone (CN), although current formulations may include OC.
Alcohol-based pepper sprays pose a fire risk when used with tasers due to the alcohol's flammability.
Answer: True
The presence of flammable alcohol in certain pepper spray formulations creates a potential ignition hazard when combined with the electrical discharge from a taser.
The European Parliament's STOA appraisal suggested that relying solely on manufacturers' safety claims for crowd control weapons is wise.
Answer: False
The STOA appraisal advised against relying solely on manufacturers' safety claims for crowd control technologies, recommending open publication of research and standardized safety criteria.
Pepper spray can pose a significant risk of death to individuals with compromised respiratory systems.
Answer: True
For individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions or compromised breathing capacity, the effects of pepper spray can exacerbate their condition to a life-threatening degree.
Reports from the Los Angeles Times indicated no deaths associated with police use of pepper spray since 1990.
Answer: False
Reports from sources like the Los Angeles Times have documented numerous deaths associated with police use of pepper spray since 1990.
US Army studies found capsaicin to be non-mutagenic.
Answer: False
US Army studies indicated that capsaicin is mildly mutagenic and has been linked to cancer development in mice under certain experimental conditions.
Special Agent Thomas W. W. Ward was fired for approving the FBI's pepper spray study without conflicts of interest.
Answer: False
Special Agent Thomas W. W. Ward was dismissed and faced legal consequences for approving FBI studies while receiving undisclosed payments from a pepper spray manufacturer, indicating a conflict of interest.
The debate around pepper spray and positional asphyxiation questions whether it contributes to deaths in police custody.
Answer: True
A significant concern and area of debate involves the potential contribution of pepper spray, in conjunction with restraint techniques, to positional asphyxiation and subsequent fatalities in individuals in police custody.
Blinking vigorously is recommended for victims of pepper spray to help clear their eyes.
Answer: True
Encouraging victims to blink vigorously can help stimulate tear production, which aids in flushing the irritant from the eyes and alleviating discomfort.
A study found significant differences in pain relief between various treatments for pepper spray exposure.
Answer: False
A study comparing common treatments for pepper spray exposure found no significant differences in pain relief among the tested methods; time elapsed was the primary factor in recovery.
OSHA requires a Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for pepper spray to be available in the workplace.
Answer: True
Under OSHA regulations, employers must ensure that Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for hazardous substances, including pepper spray if used in the workplace, are accessible to employees.
The Hall v Collins court case in Western Australia legalized pepper spray for all citizens.
Answer: False
The Hall v Collins case in Western Australia established that pepper spray could be legally possessed for self-defense on a case-by-case basis demonstrating a 'reasonable excuse,' rather than a blanket legalization for all citizens.
What potential risk is associated with alcohol-based pepper sprays when used with tasers?
Answer: Potential fire risk due to alcohol's flammability
The flammability of alcohol present in some pepper spray formulations creates a significant fire hazard when used in proximity to the electrical discharge of a taser.
What concern did the European Parliament's STOA appraisal raise regarding crowd control technologies like pepper spray?
Answer: Relying solely on manufacturers' claims about safety is unwise.
The STOA appraisal cautioned against over-reliance on manufacturer safety assurances for crowd control agents, advocating for independent research and standardized safety protocols.
For individuals with compromised respiratory systems, what risk does pepper spray pose?
Answer: A risk of death due to exacerbation of existing conditions.
The respiratory effects of pepper spray can be critically dangerous for individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, potentially leading to fatal outcomes.
Reports from the Los Angeles Times and ACLU in the 1990s indicated a significant number of what associated with police use of pepper spray?
Answer: Deaths
Investigative reports from the 1990s, including those by the Los Angeles Times and the ACLU, documented numerous fatalities linked to the use of pepper spray by law enforcement.
What did US Army studies find regarding the mutagenicity of capsaicin?
Answer: It is mildly mutagenic.
US Army studies concluded that capsaicin exhibits mild mutagenic properties and demonstrated carcinogenic potential in laboratory mice.
What controversy surrounded Special Agent Thomas W. W. Ward and the FBI's pepper spray study?
Answer: He was fired for receiving payments from a manufacturer while conducting the study.
Special Agent Thomas W. W. Ward was dismissed from his position due to undisclosed financial ties to a pepper spray manufacturer during his oversight of the FBI's research on the substance.
What is the primary debate surrounding pepper spray and positional asphyxiation?
Answer: Whether pepper spray causes positional asphyxiation in individuals in police custody.
The central debate concerns whether the use of pepper spray contributes to positional asphyxiation, potentially leading to fatalities among individuals restrained by law enforcement.
What OSHA requirement exists for pepper spray use in the workplace?
Answer: A Safety Data Sheet (SDS) must be available to employees.
OSHA mandates that employers provide access to Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for any hazardous chemicals, including pepper spray, used within the workplace.
Pepper spray is permitted for use in warfare under the Chemical Weapons Convention.
Answer: False
The Chemical Weapons Convention explicitly bans the use of all riot control agents, including pepper spray, in warfare.
In South Africa, pepper sprays are illegal for civilians.
Answer: False
Pepper sprays are legal for civilian possession and self-defense purposes in South Africa.
Hong Kong classifies pepper spray as an "arm" and prohibits civilian possession without a license.
Answer: True
In Hong Kong, pepper spray is legally defined as an "arm" under the Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance, making civilian possession without a license a criminal offense.
In India, pepper spray can be purchased freely without any background checks.
Answer: False
In India, while pepper spray is legal, its purchase requires background verification and must be obtained from government-approved companies.
Germany permits possession of pepper sprays labeled for defense against animals by anyone over 14.
Answer: True
Germany allows individuals over 14 years of age to possess pepper sprays specifically labeled for animal defense, provided they bear an official test mark.
Greece permits civilians to possess pepper spray.
Answer: False
Pepper spray is illegal for civilian possession in Greece.
Italy allows OC-based pepper sprays for citizens over 16 if they meet specific criteria like payload and concentration limits.
Answer: True
In Italy, individuals over 16 may possess OC-based pepper sprays provided they adhere to specific regulations concerning payload volume, OC concentration, capsaicin concentration, and range.
In Canada, pepper spray designed for use against people is legal for civilians.
Answer: False
Pepper spray intended for use against humans is classified as a prohibited weapon for civilians in Canada; only law enforcement personnel are permitted to carry it.
Pepper spray can be legally carried in all 50 US states, but some states have strength regulations.
Answer: True
Possession of pepper spray is legal across all US states, though specific regulations regarding maximum strength, age limits, and usage vary by state.
It is legal to carry pepper spray on commercial airliners in the US.
Answer: False
Carrying pepper spray on commercial aircraft, either in checked or carry-on luggage, is prohibited by federal law in the United States.
In New York, pepper spray possession is allowed for individuals 18+ if it contains no more than 0.67% capsaicin and is purchased in person.
Answer: True
New York State law permits individuals aged 18 and older to possess pepper spray containing up to 0.67% capsaicin, with specific purchase requirements including in-person acquisition from licensed vendors.
In Australia, pepper spray is legal for unauthorized persons to possess in New South Wales.
Answer: False
In New South Wales, Australia, pepper spray is classified as a prohibited weapon, and its possession by unauthorized individuals is illegal.
In New Zealand, pepper spray is classified as a restricted weapon requiring a permit.
Answer: True
Pepper spray is designated as a restricted weapon in New Zealand, necessitating a permit for its acquisition and possession.
In the United Kingdom, pepper spray is legal for civilians.
Answer: False
Pepper spray is classified as an illegal weapon for civilian possession in the United Kingdom, with exceptions only for law enforcement officers.
In France, pepper spray containers smaller than 100 ml are legal for individuals over 18.
Answer: True
France permits individuals over 18 years of age to possess pepper spray containers under 100 ml, classifying them as Category 6 Weapons.
In Sweden, pepper sprays require a permit and are issued very restrictively.
Answer: True
Possession and importation of pepper sprays in Sweden are regulated under the Weapons Act, requiring a permit that is granted only under restrictive conditions.
In Switzerland, pepper spray can be distributed to anyone over 18 without ID verification.
Answer: False
In Switzerland, the distribution of pepper spray is restricted to individuals over 18 who must present identification, and it is sold only at licensed outlets.
Civilians are prohibited from possessing pepper sprays in Mexico.
Answer: True
Civilian possession of pepper spray is prohibited in Mexico.
In Poland, pepper spray is considered a weapon requiring registration.
Answer: False
In Poland, pepper spray, referred to as a 'hand-held disabling gas thrower,' is not classified as a weapon and does not require registration or permission for civilian carry.
In Norway, pepper spray is legal for civilians.
Answer: False
Pepper spray is illegal for civilian possession in Norway; only police officers are authorized to carry it.
In Denmark, individuals over 18 can obtain a pepper spray certificate from the police.
Answer: True
Denmark permits individuals over 18 to obtain a certificate for pepper spray possession, typically issued to those facing specific risks.
In Finland, possession of pepper spray requires a license.
Answer: True
Finland mandates a license for the possession of pepper spray, generally granted for defensive purposes or specific professional needs.
In Austria, pepper spray is classified as a prohibited weapon for civilians.
Answer: False
Austria classifies pepper spray as a self-defense device, legally available for adults to own and carry without registration.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in warfare according to the Chemical Weapons Convention?
Answer: Banned for use in warfare.
The Chemical Weapons Convention explicitly prohibits the use of riot control agents, including pepper spray, in warfare.
In which country is pepper spray legal for civilians to own and possess for self-defense?
Answer: South Africa
South Africa permits civilians to legally own and possess pepper spray for self-defense purposes.
What is the classification of pepper spray in Hong Kong?
Answer: An "arm" under the Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance.
In Hong Kong, pepper spray is legally classified as an "arm" under the Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance, restricting its possession by civilians.
What is required for civilians to purchase pepper spray in India?
Answer: Purchase only from government-approved companies after background verification.
In India, the legal purchase of pepper spray necessitates acquiring it from government-approved vendors following a background verification process.
In Germany, what type of pepper sprays can be owned and carried by anyone over 14?
Answer: Sprays labeled for defense against animals and bearing an MPA test mark.
Germany permits individuals over 14 to possess pepper sprays designated for animal defense, provided they meet specific criteria, including an MPA test mark.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in Greece?
Answer: Illegal for civilians.
Possession of pepper spray by civilians is illegal in Greece.
Which of the following criteria must OC-based pepper sprays meet to be legally possessed in Italy by citizens over 16?
Answer: Payload not exceeding 20 ml, OC concentration up to 10%, capsaicin concentration up to 2.5%.
Italian law permits OC-based pepper sprays for individuals over 16 if they meet specific parameters: payload ≤ 20 ml, OC concentration ≤ 10%, and capsaicin concentration ≤ 2.5%.
In Canada, what is the legal status of pepper spray designed for use against people?
Answer: Considered a prohibited weapon for civilians.
Pepper spray intended for use against humans is classified as a prohibited weapon for civilians in Canada, although similar products labeled for animal defense may be regulated differently.
What federal law applies to carrying pepper spray on commercial airliners in the US?
Answer: It is a federal offense to carry or ship it on a commercial airliner.
Federal regulations in the United States strictly prohibit the carriage of pepper spray on commercial aircraft, classifying it as a federal offense.
Before July 1, 2014, what was required for Massachusetts residents to purchase or possess pepper spray outside their property?
Answer: A Firearms Identification Card (FID) or License to Carry Firearms (LTC).
Prior to July 1, 2014, Massachusetts residents required a Firearms Identification Card (FID) or a License to Carry Firearms (LTC) to legally purchase or possess pepper spray outside their property.
In Victoria, Australia, how is pepper spray classified?
Answer: A prohibited weapon.
In Victoria, Australia, devices designed to discharge oleoresin capsicum spray are designated as prohibited weapons under the Control of Weapons Regulations.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in New Zealand?
Answer: Classified as a restricted weapon requiring a permit.
Pepper spray is classified as a restricted weapon in New Zealand, necessitating a permit for possession or acquisition by civilians.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in the United Kingdom for civilians?
Answer: Illegal, considered a product designed to cause injury.
In the United Kingdom, pepper spray is classified as an illegal weapon for civilian possession, primarily because it is considered a device designed to inflict harm.
In Italy, what is the maximum allowed payload for OC-based pepper sprays that citizens over 16 can possess?
Answer: 20 ml
Italian regulations permit OC-based pepper sprays with a maximum payload of 20 ml for possession by citizens over 16.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in Mexico for civilians?
Answer: Prohibited.
Civilians are prohibited from possessing pepper spray in Mexico.
In Russia, what is pepper spray classified as?
Answer: A self-defense weapon.
In Russia, pepper spray is classified as a self-defense weapon and is legally available for civilian use.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in the Netherlands for civilians?
Answer: Illegal to own or carry.
Pepper spray is illegal for civilian ownership or carriage in the Netherlands; its use is restricted to law enforcement personnel.
What is the legal status of pepper spray in Japan?
Answer: No laws prohibiting possession or use.
There are no specific laws in Japan that prohibit the possession or use of pepper spray.
A cone pattern dispersion for pepper spray is unaffected by wind.
Answer: False
Cone pattern dispersions, due to their broad spray, are susceptible to wind drift, which can affect accuracy and increase the risk of blowback or cross-contamination.
Gel compound pepper spray offers greater accuracy and reduces blowback compared to traditional sprays.
Answer: True
Gel formulations adhere more directly to the target, enhancing accuracy and significantly reducing the likelihood of blowback or dispersal into unintended areas.
Which dispersion pattern for aerosol pepper spray is most susceptible to wind?
Answer: Cone pattern
The cone pattern disperses the spray over a wider area, making it more vulnerable to wind drift, which can compromise accuracy and increase the risk of unintended exposure.
What advantage does gel compound pepper spray have over traditional spray?
Answer: It offers greater accuracy and reduces blowback.
Gel formulations provide enhanced accuracy and minimize blowback, as the viscous substance adheres to the target and disperses less readily into the surrounding environment.