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A polynya is defined as a region of open seawater situated within an expanse of surrounding sea ice.
Answer: True
A polynya is characterized by an area of open seawater found within surrounding sea ice.
The term 'polynya' originates from the Russian word 'polynya' (полынья), historically signifying a natural ice hole or opening.
Answer: True
The etymology of the term 'polynya' traces back to the Russian word 'polynya' (полынья), which historically denoted a natural opening in the ice.
A polynya is defined as a region of sea ice completely surrounded by open water.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. A polynya is defined as an area of *open water* surrounded by sea ice, not the reverse.
The term 'polynya' originates from a Latin word meaning 'open sea'.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. The term 'polynya' originates from a Russian word, not Latin.
According to the provided text, what is the definition of a polynya?
Answer: An area of open water completely surrounded by sea ice.
A polynya is defined as an area of open water situated within an expanse of surrounding sea ice.
From which language does the term 'polynya' originate, and what did it historically refer to?
Answer: Russian, meaning 'natural ice hole'.
The term 'polynya' is derived from the Russian word 'polynya' (полынья), which historically denoted a natural ice hole.
The two principal classifications of polynyas are coastal polynyas and mid-sea polynyas.
Answer: True
Polynyas are broadly categorized into two primary types: coastal polynyas and mid-sea (or open-ocean) polynyas.
Coastal polynyas are typically located adjacent to Arctic and Antarctic coastlines. Their primary formation mechanism involves strong winds that displace sea ice seaward from the shore.
Answer: True
Coastal polynyas are generally situated near the Arctic and Antarctic coastlines and are primarily formed when strong winds push the sea ice away from the shore.
The formation of a sensible heat polynya is attributed to the upwelling of warmer subsurface water, which maintains the surface seawater temperature at or above the freezing point, thereby inhibiting ice formation.
Answer: True
A sensible heat polynya forms when upwelling of warm water prevents the surface seawater from freezing.
Latent heat polynyas are generated when katabatic winds drive sea ice away from a fixed boundary, such as a coastline or fast ice. This process creates an area of open water where new ice formation occurs and is subsequently transported away.
Answer: True
Latent heat polynyas are created when katabatic winds move sea ice away from a fixed boundary, allowing new ice to form in the resulting open water.
Mid-sea polynyas can form when specific atmospheric conditions induce sea ice to diverge, drifting apart in opposing directions.
Answer: True
Mid-sea polynyas can be formed when atmospheric conditions cause sea ice to drift apart in opposing directions.
Polar cyclones contribute to the formation of mid-sea polynyas by generating atmospheric circulation patterns that drive surrounding sea ice away from the storm's center.
Answer: True
Polar cyclones contribute to the formation of mid-sea polynyas by generating winds that push surrounding ice away from the storm's center.
Coastal polynyas are predominantly found in the open ocean and are formed by underwater volcanic activity.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Coastal polynyas are found near coastlines and are primarily formed by wind action or oceanic heat flux, not volcanic activity.
Mid-sea polynyas are consistently found in predictable locations within large ice masses and are solely driven by atmospheric conditions.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. While atmospheric conditions are a factor, mid-sea polynyas can also be influenced by oceanic dynamics, and their locations are not always consistently predictable.
The Maud Rise Polynya, also known as the Weddell Polynya, is a coastal polynya located in the Lazarev Sea.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. The Maud Rise Polynya, also known as the Weddell Polynya, is classified as a *mid-sea* or *open-ocean* polynya, situated over the Maud Rise seamount in the Lazarev Sea.
The Weddell Polynya was first documented in the early 20th century and made its most recent significant appearance in the early 2000s.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. The Weddell Polynya was first documented in *1973*, and a significant reappearance occurred in *2017*, not the early 2000s.
Sensible heat polynyas form due to the freezing of surface water, which then sinks and pushes warmer water upwards.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Sensible heat polynyas form due to *upwelling of warmer water* that *prevents* freezing, not due to freezing itself.
Latent heat polynyas are primarily formed by the influx of warm ocean currents that melt existing sea ice.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Latent heat polynyas are primarily formed by katabatic winds pushing ice away, leading to *new ice formation*, not by melting from warm currents.
Mid-sea polynyas exclusively form due to consistent, slow-moving ocean currents that create gaps in the ice pack.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. While ocean currents can play a role, mid-sea polynyas are primarily formed by atmospheric conditions causing ice divergence, and not exclusively by slow-moving currents.
What are the two primary classifications of polynyas mentioned in the text?
Answer: Coastal polynyas and mid-sea polynyas.
The text categorizes polynyas into two main types: coastal polynyas and mid-sea polynyas.
Coastal polynyas are typically found near which geographical areas, and what is their primary formation mechanism?
Answer: Antarctic and Arctic coasts; caused by strong winds pushing ice away.
Coastal polynyas are primarily situated near the Arctic and Antarctic coastlines and are predominantly formed by strong winds displacing sea ice away from the shore.
What process is responsible for the formation of a sensible heat polynya?
Answer: Upwelling of warm water preventing surface water from freezing.
Sensible heat polynyas form due to the upwelling of warm subsurface water, which maintains the surface temperature above freezing and inhibits ice formation.
Which mechanism is characteristic of latent heat polynya formation?
Answer: Katabatic winds pushing ice away from a boundary, leading to new ice formation.
Latent heat polynyas are formed when katabatic winds displace sea ice from a boundary, creating open water where new ice forms and is subsequently removed.
What typically causes mid-sea polynyas to form?
Answer: Atmospheric conditions causing sea ice to drift in opposite directions.
Mid-sea polynyas typically form when atmospheric conditions induce sea ice to diverge and drift apart in opposing directions.
According to an image caption, what likely keeps the polynya near the west shore of Hudson Bay open?
Answer: Tidal currents.
An image caption suggests that tidal currents are likely responsible for keeping the polynya near the west shore of Hudson Bay open.
What is another name for the Weddell Polynya?
Answer: The Maud Rise Polynya
The Weddell Polynya is also known as the Maud Rise Polynya.
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) constitutes a critical component of global ocean circulation, distinguished by its high density and salinity within the abyssal layers of the Southern Ocean.
Answer: True
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) is a significant component of global ocean circulation, characterized by its density and high salinity in the Southern Ocean's deep layers.
The process of sea ice formation within coastal polynyas results in brine rejection, which elevates the salinity of the surrounding seawater. This denser water mass then sinks, contributing to the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW).
Answer: True
The formation of sea ice in coastal polynyas leads to brine rejection, increasing seawater salinity and contributing to the formation of dense Antarctic Bottom Water.
Brine rejection refers to the physical process wherein salt ions are expelled from seawater as it transitions into ice. This expulsion elevates the salinity of the remaining unfrozen liquid water.
Answer: True
Brine rejection is the phenomenon where salt is expelled from seawater during the freezing process, thereby increasing the salinity of the remaining liquid water.
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) is a low-salinity, warm water mass found near the surface of the Southern Ocean.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) is a *dense, cold, high-salinity* water mass found in the *deep layers* of the Southern Ocean.
Coastal polynyas indirectly contribute to Antarctic Bottom Water formation by releasing freshwater, which dilutes the surrounding seawater.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Coastal polynyas contribute to AABW formation through *brine rejection*, which increases salinity and density, rather than by releasing freshwater.
Which description best fits Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) according to the text?
Answer: A dense, high-salinity water mass in the abyssal layer of the Southern Ocean.
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) is characterized as a dense, high-salinity water mass found in the abyssal layers of the Southern Ocean.
What is the mechanism by which coastal polynyas contribute to the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW)?
Answer: Via brine rejection during ice formation, increasing salinity and density.
Coastal polynyas contribute to AABW formation through brine rejection during sea ice formation, which increases the salinity and density of the seawater, causing it to sink.
What does the term 'brine rejection' refer to in the context of sea ice formation?
Answer: The expulsion of salt from seawater as it freezes, increasing the salinity of the remaining water.
Brine rejection is the process by which salt is expelled from seawater during freezing, leading to an increase in the salinity of the remaining liquid water.
Within the Antarctic region, latent heat polynyas are recognized as a principal source of new sea ice production.
Answer: True
Latent heat polynyas play a significant role in the Antarctic as a primary source of new sea ice generation.
Seasonal polynyas are of considerable ecological interest due to their predictable temporal and spatial occurrence, which enables various marine species to synchronize critical life cycle events with these recurring conditions.
Answer: True
Seasonal polynyas are of significant ecological interest because their predictable occurrence allows various animal species to synchronize their life strategies with these conditions.
Certain marine mammals, including walruses, narwhals, and belugas, are known to utilize polynyas as overwintering habitats, often remaining in these areas rather than undertaking extensive migrations.
Answer: True
Marine mammals such as walruses, narwhals, and belugas are known to inhabit polynyas during the winter months, often avoiding migration.
Seasonal polynyas are ecologically significant because their unpredictable nature forces marine life to constantly adapt to changing conditions.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Seasonal polynyas are ecologically significant due to their *predictable* nature, which allows marine life to synchronize life strategies, not because of unpredictability.
Polar bears typically swim only short distances, less than 5 kilometers, across polynya waters.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Polar bears have been observed swimming distances of up to 65 kilometers (35 nautical miles) across polynya waters.
A polynya bloom refers to a sudden decrease in phytoplankton population within the open waters of a polynya.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. A polynya bloom refers to a sudden *increase* in phytoplankton population, indicating high biological productivity.
What is the primary ecological significance of latent heat polynyas in the Antarctic?
Answer: They are a significant source of sea ice production.
Latent heat polynyas are recognized as a principal source of new sea ice production in the Antarctic region.
What makes seasonal polynyas particularly valuable for ecological research?
Answer: Their consistent timing and location allow animals to adapt life strategies.
Seasonal polynyas are of significant ecological interest due to their predictable occurrence, which allows various animal species to synchronize their life strategies with these conditions.
Which of the following marine mammals are mentioned as often remaining in polynyas during winter?
Answer: Walruses, narwhals, and belugas.
Marine mammals such as walruses, narwhals, and belugas are known to inhabit polynyas during the winter months, often remaining in these areas rather than migrating.
What is the maximum observed swimming distance for polar bears across polynya waters mentioned in the text?
Answer: 65 kilometers (approx. 35 nautical miles).
Polar bears have been observed swimming distances of up to 65 kilometers (35 nautical miles) across the open waters of a polynya.
What is a 'polynya bloom'?
Answer: A localized increase in phytoplankton growth in a polynya's open water.
A polynya bloom, also known as a marine algal bloom, refers to a localized increase in phytoplankton growth within the open water of a polynya.
Which two factors are identified as the primary drivers for polynya blooms?
Answer: Increased sunlight penetration and nutrient influx from upwelling.
Polynya blooms are primarily driven by increased sunlight penetration due to the absence of sea ice and by the influx of nutrients from upwelling.
Polynyas are typically more biologically productive than surrounding waters primarily because they offer:
Answer: Higher concentrations of phytoplankton due to increased light and nutrients.
Polynyas exhibit higher biological productivity compared to surrounding ice-covered waters due to increased concentrations of phytoplankton, fueled by greater light availability and nutrient influx.
What role do polynyas play in the marine food web?
Answer: They are centers of high primary production, forming the base of the food web.
As centers of high primary production, polynyas form the foundation of the marine food web, providing a vital food source for various organisms.
What correlation was observed between the Ross Sea Polynya's opening and seal mortality rates?
Answer: Mortality rates increased during years when the polynya failed to open.
Increased seal mortality rates were observed during years when the Ross Sea Polynya failed to open, indicating its importance for seal survival.
In eastern Antarctica, what relationship has been observed between Adélie penguin colonies and coastal polynyas?
Answer: A significant majority of colonies are associated with polynyas, and their sizes often correlate.
In eastern Antarctica, a significant majority of Adélie penguin colonies are associated with coastal polynyas, and the size of these colonies often correlates with the size of the polynya.
How do polynyas in McMurdo Sound affect penguin populations?
Answer: They provide essential ice-free areas that positively impact penguin survival.
Polynyas in McMurdo Sound provide essential ice-free feeding areas that positively impact penguin survival, as observed with colonies like the Cape Royds penguin colony.
What is the ecological function of carbon transported from polynya blooms?
Answer: It provides nutrients to sustain rich benthic communities on the seafloor.
The downward transport of carbon from polynya blooms, in the form of marine snow, provides essential nutrients that sustain rich benthic communities on the seafloor.
Based on an Arctic marine food web caption, what is the fundamental role of a polynya?
Answer: It allows phytoplankton, the base of the food web, to grow.
According to an Arctic marine food web caption, a polynya's fundamental role is to allow phytoplankton, the base of the food web, to grow.
During the 19th century, polar explorers adopted the Russian term 'polynya' to denote navigable sea areas observed within extensive ice formations.
Answer: True
Polar explorers adopted the Russian term 'polynya' in the 19th century to describe navigable sea areas encountered within ice formations.
Polar explorers in the 18th century adopted the term 'polynya' to describe areas of solid ice within navigable seas.
Answer: False
This statement is incorrect. Polar explorers adopted the term 'polynya' in the *19th century* to describe *open sea areas* within ice packs, not solid ice.
Historically, what primary role have polynyas played for human populations in polar regions?
Answer: They provided crucial food sources.
Polynyas have historically supported human populations by providing crucial food sources in polar regions, enabling the sustenance of high-latitude communities.
Why is the North Water Polynya considered significant for human settlement in the Arctic?
Answer: It serves as a critical food source enabling high-latitude communities.
The North Water Polynya is significant for human settlement as it is a critical food source that has enabled high-latitude communities to exist in the region.
According to historical evidence mentioned, which groups may have utilized the North Water Polynya?
Answer: Thule people, Inuit, Norse, and western explorers.
Historical evidence suggests that the North Water Polynya may have been utilized by groups including the Thule people, Inuit, Norse, and various western explorers.
Which of the following towns in Greenland are supported by the North Water Polynya?
Answer: Qaanaaq, Qeqertat, Savissivik, and Siorapaluk.
The North Water Polynya supports Greenland's northernmost towns, including Qaanaaq, Qeqertat, Savissivik, and Siorapaluk.
What notable event occurred in 1962 involving U.S. Navy submarines within a polynya?
Answer: The first polar rendezvous of U.S. Atlantic and Pacific Fleets via submarine surfacing.
In 1962, the submarines USS Skate and USS Seadragon achieved the first polar rendezvous by surfacing within the same polynya near the North Pole.