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Utilitarianism fundamentally posits that the morality of an action is determined exclusively by its consequences, with the objective of achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
Answer: True
This statement accurately captures the core principle of utilitarianism, which is a consequentialist ethical theory focused on maximizing overall well-being.
John Stuart Mill, not Jeremy Bentham, is credited with founding modern utilitarianism and authored the seminal work 'Utilitarianism'.
Answer: False
While John Stuart Mill significantly advanced and popularized utilitarianism, authoring the influential text 'Utilitarianism,' Jeremy Bentham is widely recognized as the founder of modern utilitarianism and the author of its foundational text, 'An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation'.
Utilitarianism, particularly as articulated by thinkers like Bentham and Singer, extends moral consideration to all sentient beings capable of experiencing pleasure or pain, not solely rational human beings.
Answer: True
A key tenet of utilitarianism is its inclusive approach, extending moral concern to any being capable of suffering or experiencing well-being, irrespective of their rationality or species.
Who is widely recognized as the founder of modern utilitarianism, and what is the title of his seminal work?
Answer: Jeremy Bentham, 'An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation'
Jeremy Bentham is credited with establishing the foundational principles of modern utilitarianism in his significant work published in 1789.
Which prominent figure is credited with popularizing the term 'utilitarianism,' distinct from its founding?
Answer: John Stuart Mill
Although Jeremy Bentham used the term, John Stuart Mill is largely responsible for popularizing 'utilitarianism' through his influential essay and book of the same title.
What is the 'utilitarian rule' as applied in social choice theory?
Answer: A rule that society should select the alternative maximizing the sum of utilities.
In social choice theory, the utilitarian rule dictates that the optimal social outcome is the one that yields the greatest total sum of utility across all individuals in the society.
John Stuart Mill introduced the qualitative distinction between 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures, asserting that intellectual and moral pleasures are intrinsically superior to purely physical ones.
Answer: True
Mill's refinement of utilitarianism involved arguing that the quality of pleasure matters as much as, if not more than, its quantity, positing that intellectual pursuits yield a higher form of satisfaction.
Jeremy Bentham's 'hedonic calculus' was a framework designed to quantify the intensity, duration, and other factors of pleasures and pains to determine the overall utility of an action.
Answer: True
Bentham developed the hedonic calculus as a systematic method to measure the value of pleasures and pains by considering various dimensions, thereby assessing the potential utility of different actions.
G. E. Moore's 'ideal utilitarianism' posits that intrinsic moral worth extends beyond mere pleasure to include other goods like knowledge, love, and beauty.
Answer: True
Moore's ideal utilitarianism diverges from hedonistic utilitarianism by identifying multiple intrinsically valuable states, such as knowledge and aesthetic appreciation, as objects to be maximized.
Jeremy Bentham distinguished between 'evils of the first order' (immediate consequences of an act) and 'evils of the second order' (broader societal effects, such as alarm and danger) in his analysis of law-breaking.
Answer: True
Bentham's analysis of legal sanctions involved differentiating between the direct harm caused by an offense and the indirect societal consequences, such as the erosion of public confidence or the creation of fear.
John Stuart Mill introduced the qualitative distinction between 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures, asserting that intellectual and moral pleasures are intrinsically superior to purely physical ones.
Answer: Utilitarianism
This statement accurately describes a key contribution of John Stuart Mill to utilitarian theory, distinguishing between different qualities of pleasure.
How does John Stuart Mill differentiate between 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures within his utilitarian framework?
Answer: Higher pleasures are derived from intellectual and moral faculties, considered intrinsically more valuable.
Mill argued that pleasures associated with the intellect, imagination, moral sentiments, and aesthetic appreciation are qualitatively superior to purely bodily or sensual pleasures.
Bentham's 'hedonic calculus' is a method designed for:
Answer: Calculating the potential utility of different actions by measuring pleasures and pains.
The hedonic calculus was Bentham's tool for quantifying the pleasures and pains associated with an action to determine its overall utility.
Which of the following factors was NOT included in Jeremy Bentham's hedonic calculus?
Answer: Moral Purity
Bentham's calculus included factors like intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. 'Moral Purity' is not one of these specific quantifiable factors.
Henry Sidgwick sought to reconcile utilitarianism with common-sense morality by:
Answer: Showing that abstract principles from common sense are compatible with utilitarianism.
Sidgwick, in 'The Methods of Ethics,' argued that fundamental principles of common-sense morality, such as impartiality and consistency, could be shown to be consistent with utilitarianism.
What does 'ideal utilitarianism,' as articulated by G. E. Moore, propose should be maximized?
Answer: Pleasure, knowledge, love, and beauty
G. E. Moore argued that intrinsic value extends beyond pleasure to include states like love, knowledge, and aesthetic appreciation, which should be maximized.
Which philosopher argued that the capacity for suffering, rather than rationality, forms the basis for moral consideration within utilitarianism?
Answer: Jeremy Bentham
Bentham famously stated that the question is not 'Can they reason?' nor 'Can they talk?' but 'Can they suffer?', indicating that sentience is the criterion for moral consideration.
How did Mill's argument for the superiority of higher pleasures utilize the concept of 'competent judges'?
Answer: He claimed that those acquainted with both higher and lower pleasures would prefer the higher ones.
Mill posited that individuals who have experienced both types of pleasures would invariably choose the higher ones, thereby demonstrating their qualitative superiority.
David Hume posited that public utility plays a significant role in determining morality, alongside individual sentiment.
Answer: True
Hume argued in 'An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals' that societal utility is a crucial factor in moral judgments, aligning with the broader consequentialist tradition.
Francis Hutcheson proposed that morality is proportionate to the happiness or good produced for the greatest number, not the harm caused to the fewest.
Answer: True
Hutcheson's formulation in 'An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue' is considered a significant precursor to utilitarian thought, emphasizing the principle of maximizing general welfare.
William Paley advocated for theological utilitarianism, linking the rightness of actions to their divine expediency or their contribution to overall happiness as ordained by God.
Answer: True
Paley integrated utilitarian principles with religious doctrine, suggesting that God's will is expressed through actions that promote the greatest happiness, aligning divine command theory with consequentialist reasoning.
Ancient Greek hedonists, such as Epicurus, are considered precursors to utilitarian thought due to their emphasis on happiness and pleasure as the ultimate good.
Answer: True
The focus on pleasure and the absence of pain as the primary goals of life, as articulated by Epicurus and other hedonists, laid early groundwork for consequentialist ethical theories centered on well-being.
Which ancient Chinese philosopher, according to the source material, developed a consequentialist theory focused on maximizing societal benefit?
Answer: Mozi
Mozi, an ancient Chinese philosopher, advocated for a form of consequentialism centered on promoting universal benefit and eliminating harm for society.
How did Francis Hutcheson's philosophical work foreshadow later utilitarian concepts?
Answer: By proposing that morality is proportionate to the happiness brought to the greatest number.
Hutcheson's formulation that the 'best' action is that which produces the 'greatest happiness for the greatest number' is a direct precursor to the utilitarian principle.
Act utilitarianism judges the morality of an action based on its own specific consequences, rather than on whether it conforms to a general rule.
Answer: True
Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action based on its direct consequences, contrasting with rule utilitarianism, which assesses actions based on adherence to rules that generally maximize utility.
Preference utilitarianism posits that the right action is the one that maximizes the fulfillment of preferences among those affected, rather than solely maximizing overall happiness irrespective of preferences.
Answer: True
Preference utilitarianism shifts the focus from maximizing pleasure or happiness to satisfying the preferences of individuals, acknowledging that people may have diverse and sometimes conflicting desires.
Rule utilitarianism was developed, in part, to address criticisms leveled against act utilitarianism concerning issues of justice, promise-keeping, and individual rights.
Answer: True
Rule utilitarianism seeks to resolve some of the perceived shortcomings of act utilitarianism by focusing on the utility of general rules rather than the consequences of individual acts.
Motive utilitarianism focuses on selecting the best motives or dispositions, which then guide actions, rather than judging the immediate consequences of each individual action.
Answer: True
This variant of utilitarianism evaluates the morality of an agent based on the quality of their underlying motives or character traits, rather than solely on the outcomes of specific actions.
R. M. Hare's 'two-level utilitarianism' proposes a distinction between a critical level of moral reasoning (for 'archangels') and an intuitive level (for 'proles'), suggesting ordinary people should generally follow established rules rather than perform complex calculations for every decision.
Answer: True
Hare's model attempts to reconcile the theoretical demands of utilitarianism with practical moral decision-making by differentiating between the rigorous calculations of moral experts and the rule-based approach of the general populace.
Total utilitarianism aims to maximize the sum of happiness across all individuals in a population, whereas average utilitarianism aims to maximize the average happiness per person.
Answer: True
This distinction highlights different approaches to aggregating utility within a population, each leading to potentially different moral conclusions and raising distinct philosophical challenges.
What is the fundamental distinction between Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism?
Answer: Act utilitarianism judges each act by its consequences, while rule utilitarianism judges acts based on adherence to utility-maximizing rules.
Act utilitarianism assesses the morality of each action individually based on its outcome, whereas rule utilitarianism evaluates actions based on whether they conform to rules that, if generally followed, would produce the greatest utility.
What is the central tenet of 'preference utilitarianism'?
Answer: Actions are right if they fulfill the preferences of those affected.
Preference utilitarianism defines the right action as that which maximizes the satisfaction of the preferences held by the individuals involved.
R. M. Hare's 'two-level utilitarianism' proposes a distinction between:
Answer: A critical level for moral experts and an intuitive level for ordinary people.
Hare's theory suggests that moral experts ('archangels') can engage in complex utilitarian calculations, while ordinary individuals ('proles') should adhere to general moral rules derived from utilitarian principles.
The 'sheriff scenario' is a thought experiment used to illustrate the criticism that utilitarianism, particularly act utilitarianism, may justify actions such as punishing innocent individuals if it serves the perceived greater good.
Answer: True
This scenario highlights concerns about justice and rights, suggesting that a strict adherence to maximizing utility could potentially lead to morally objectionable outcomes, such as sacrificing an innocent person for societal stability.
The 'demandingness objection' argues that utilitarianism requires individuals to make excessive and potentially unreasonable sacrifices for the greater good.
Answer: True
This objection contends that utilitarianism places an overly burdensome moral obligation on individuals, requiring them to constantly prioritize the welfare of others to an extent that infringes upon their own legitimate interests and projects.
The 'repugnant conclusion,' associated with total utilitarianism, suggests that a large population with minimal happiness might be considered preferable to a smaller population with higher average happiness.
Answer: True
This conclusion, debated by philosophers like Derek Parfit, arises from the mathematical implications of maximizing total utility, leading to counter-intuitive judgments about population size and quality of life.
John Rawls criticized utilitarianism for failing to adequately respect the distinction between persons, arguing that it may justify treating individuals merely as means to an end for the sake of aggregate utility.
Answer: True
Rawls's critique, central to his theory of justice, emphasizes the importance of individual rights and the inherent dignity of each person, which he felt utilitarianism could potentially override in pursuit of collective happiness.
The 'calculation time' objection posits that utilitarianism is impractical because the process of calculating the consequences of every potential action is excessively time-consuming.
Answer: True
This objection questions the feasibility of utilitarianism in practice, arguing that individuals cannot realistically perform complex utility calculations for every decision they make.
Pope John Paul II critiqued utilitarianism, arguing that its focus on aggregate utility could lead to the devaluation of individual persons, treating them as means rather than ends.
Answer: True
From a personalist ethical perspective, the Pope expressed concern that utilitarianism might sacrifice individual dignity and rights for the sake of overall societal benefit, a stance that aligns with deontological critiques.
The 'special obligations' criticism argues that utilitarianism fails to adequately account for the moral significance of duties arising from personal relationships and commitments.
Answer: True
This objection contends that utilitarianism's impartial calculation of consequences may undervalue or dismiss the unique moral duties we have towards family, friends, and other specific individuals.
In Dostoevsky's 'The Brothers Karamazov,' Ivan Karamazov presents a challenge to Alyosha involving a scenario where the construction of societal happiness is predicated upon the profound suffering of an innocent child.
Answer: True
This literary thought experiment serves as a powerful critique of utilitarianism, questioning whether the aggregate happiness of many can ethically justify the extreme suffering of an innocent individual.
The 'sheriff scenario,' which involves framing an innocent individual to prevent civil unrest, is employed to illustrate which significant criticism of utilitarianism?
Answer: The potential justification of injustice
This scenario is a classic example used to argue that utilitarianism might endorse unjust actions, such as punishing the innocent, if such actions lead to a greater overall good.
The 'demandingness objection' against utilitarianism primarily argues that it:
Answer: Requires individuals to make excessive sacrifices for the greater good.
This objection posits that utilitarianism demands an unrealistic level of altruism and self-sacrifice from individuals, potentially infringing upon their personal lives and projects.
What is the principal criticism John Rawls leveled against utilitarianism?
Answer: It treats individuals as mere means to an end, disregarding the distinction between persons.
Rawls argued that utilitarianism aggregates individual welfare in a way that can justify sacrificing one person's interests for the greater happiness of others, thus failing to respect the separateness of persons.
What is the 'repugnant conclusion,' often associated with total utilitarianism, concerning population size and happiness?
Answer: Total utilitarianism
The 'repugnant conclusion' is a philosophical problem arising from total utilitarianism, suggesting that a very large population with minimal but positive well-being might be morally preferable to a smaller population with a higher average level of well-being.
What is the 'calculation time' objection to utilitarianism, and how did proponents like Mill address it?
Answer: Calculating consequences for every action is impractical and time-consuming.
This objection highlights the practical difficulty of performing constant utility calculations. Mill suggested that past experience and established moral rules serve as reliable guides, mitigating the need for constant recalculation.
What criticism does the 'special obligations' objection raise against utilitarianism?
Answer: The special obligations objection
This objection argues that utilitarianism fails to recognize the unique moral weight of duties arising from personal relationships, such as those to family or friends, which may conflict with impartial utility maximization.
Pope John Paul II's critique of utilitarianism centered on its potential to:
Answer: Treat persons as objects of use rather than ends in themselves.
The Pope's critique, rooted in personalist philosophy, warned that utilitarianism could lead to instrumentalizing individuals, viewing them as mere instruments for achieving greater collective happiness.
What is the 'fallacy of composition' as critiqued in relation to Mill's argument for the principle of utility?
Answer: Assuming that what is true for individuals (desiring their own happiness) is true for the aggregate (general happiness).
Critics argue that Mill's proof commits the fallacy of composition by assuming that because each individual desires their own happiness, the general happiness of all individuals must therefore be desirable.
Peter Singer argues that speciesism is ethically unjustified within a utilitarian framework, contending that the capacity for suffering, not species membership, is the basis for moral consideration.
Answer: True
Singer applies utilitarian principles to argue for the moral consideration of non-human animals, asserting that their capacity to suffer warrants inclusion in our moral calculus, thereby challenging species-based discrimination.
Richard Posner's 'wealth maximization' approach, a form of consequentialism, suggests policies are desirable if they increase aggregate wealth, even if certain individuals are harmed, provided the potential gains could theoretically compensate the losers.
Answer: True
Posner's approach, often linked to utilitarianism, prioritizes economic efficiency and aggregate wealth creation, allowing for distributions that may not be immediately equitable if overall societal wealth increases.
The utilitarian perspective on criminal justice primarily focuses on deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation to maximize societal welfare, rather than solely on retribution for past wrongs.
Answer: True
Utilitarianism views punishment as justified only insofar as it contributes to greater overall good, typically through preventing future harm, rather than as an end in itself based on desert.
The utilitarian perspective on global poverty, particularly as argued by Peter Singer, suggests individuals have a significant moral obligation to help distant strangers, as the utility gained by alleviating extreme suffering often outweighs marginal personal benefits.
Answer: True
Singer argues that utilitarian principles compel individuals in affluent societies to contribute substantially to alleviating global poverty, as the marginal utility gained by the extremely poor is vastly greater than any minor sacrifice made by the wealthy.
Peter Singer employs the concept of 'speciesism' to argue against:
Answer: Discrimination against non-human animals based solely on their species.
Singer uses the term 'speciesism' to denote unjustified discrimination against beings based on their species membership, arguing for equal consideration of interests, particularly the capacity to suffer.
From a utilitarian perspective, what is the primary purpose of criminal justice?
Answer: To deter future crime, rehabilitate offenders, and incapacitate dangerous individuals.
Utilitarianism justifies criminal justice practices based on their effectiveness in promoting overall societal welfare, primarily through crime prevention and reduction of harm.
The utilitarian perspective on global poverty, particularly as articulated by Peter Singer, implies that individuals:
Answer: Have a moral obligation to donate to effective charities to alleviate suffering.
Singer argues that utilitarian principles require individuals in affluent nations to donate significantly to aid those suffering from extreme poverty, as the marginal utility gained by the recipients far exceeds the marginal cost to the donors.
What is the primary objective of 'wealth maximization,' an economic approach often linked to utilitarian principles?
Answer: To increase the overall wealth of society, even if it harms some individuals.
Wealth maximization prioritizes increasing the total economic value within society, potentially allowing for actions that negatively impact some individuals if the aggregate economic benefit is sufficiently large.
What is the utilitarian perspective regarding the moral status of non-human animals?
Answer: Moral consideration should extend to all sentient beings capable of suffering.
Utilitarianism typically extends moral consideration to all beings capable of experiencing pleasure or pain (sentience), as their well-being is relevant to the overall calculation of utility.