What is the fundamental definition of an absolute monarchy?

An absolute monarchy is a form of government where the sovereign, or monarch, holds all political power without being limited by constitutions, legislatures, or any other checks on their authority. This means the monarch's decisions are final and not subject to review by other governmental bodies.

Who are some famous historical examples of absolute monarchs mentioned in the text?

Historically, prominent examples of absolute monarchs include Louis XIV of France, known for his long reign and centralized power, and Frederick the Great, who ruled Prussia with significant authority.

Which countries are identified as current absolute monarchies?

Currently, absolute monarchies include Brunei, Eswatini, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Vatican City, and the individual emirates that constitute the United Arab Emirates, which itself operates as a federal monarchy.

How do absolute monarchies differ from constitutional monarchies?

Absolute monarchies are distinct from constitutional monarchies because, in the latter, the monarch's power is restricted by a constitution, a legislature, or unwritten customs. In contrast, an absolute monarch's authority is unrestricted, unlike, for example, the monarchies in the United Kingdom or Nordic countries where power is shared or limited.

What distinguishes absolute monarchies from hereditary dictatorships?

Absolute monarchies are similar to but should not be confused with hereditary dictatorships, such as North Korea or Ba'athist Syria. While both involve a single leader, the historical and traditional legitimacy, as well as the specific mechanisms of power, often differ.

Who are the current absolute monarchs of Saudi Arabia and Oman, as depicted in the source material?

The source material references King Salman bin Abdulaziz as the current absolute monarch of Saudi Arabia and Sultan Haitham bin Tariq as the current absolute monarch of Oman.

How did the Sultan in the Ottoman Empire exercise absolute power?

In the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan held absolute power over the state and was referred to as a 'Padishah,' meaning 'Great King.' Many Sultans justified their absolute rule through heavenly mandates, using titles such as 'Shadow of God on Earth.'

Which ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia were ruled by absolute monarchs?

In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia, and Sumer were also considered absolute monarchs, wielding supreme authority over their respective states.

What was the basis of absolute power for emperors in Imperial China?

Throughout Imperial China, many emperors, and even one empress, Wu Zetian, exercised absolute power, which was justified by the Mandate of Heaven. This concept held that the ruler's authority came from a divine power, granting them legitimacy to govern.

Who was the absolute ruler of the Inca Empire in pre-Columbian America?

In pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was governed by a Sapa Inca, who was revered as the son of Inti, the sun god, and held absolute authority over the people and the nation.

Which Korean dynasties practiced absolute monarchy?

Korea, under the Joseon dynasty and the subsequent short-lived Korean Empire, was also an absolute monarchy, where the monarch held supreme and unrestricted power.

Which English monarchs attempted to introduce the principle of divine right into Scotland and England?

James VI and I, along with his son Charles I, made efforts to implement the principle of divine right into the governance of Scotland and England, seeking to establish their rule as divinely ordained.

What major event was partly caused by Charles I's attempts to establish absolutist government?

Fears that Charles I was trying to establish an absolutist government, similar to those in continental Europe, were a significant contributing factor to the outbreak of the English Civil War. He notably ruled for 11 years starting in 1629 without the Parliament of England.

What was the 'King's Law' in Denmark-Norway, and when was it established?

The 'King's Law,' known as Kongeloven in Danish, was a written constitution established in Denmark-Norway in 1665. It was the first time in Europe that absolutism was formally underpinned by a written constitution.

When did absolute monarchy end in Norway and Denmark?

Absolute monarchy persisted in Norway until 1814 and in Denmark until 1848, after which these countries transitioned to more limited forms of monarchy.

How did the male line of the House of Habsburg become extinct?

The male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct with the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700, who died childless, leading to a succession crisis.

Who was Joseph II, and what significant reform did he introduce?

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, was the first member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule the Holy Roman Empire. Raised during the Enlightenment, he notably extended full legal freedom to serfs in 1781, demonstrating a progressive approach to governance.

Who was the last Emperor of Austria, and why did he abdicate?

Charles I of Austria was the last Emperor of Austria, reigning from 1848 until his abdication on November 12, 1918. His abdication was a direct consequence of Austria-Hungary's defeat in World War I.

What famous declaration is attributed to Louis XIV of France?

Louis XIV of France (1638–1715) is famously said to have proclaimed 'L'état, c'est moi!' which translates to 'I am the State!,' encapsulating his belief in absolute rule.

How did the King of France concentrate power during the absolute monarchy?

The King of France, particularly under Louis XIV, concentrated legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his own person. He served as the supreme judicial authority, possessing the power to condemn individuals to death without appeal and to both create and annul laws.

What unique emphasis did the concept of absolute monarchy take in Brandenburg-Prussia?

In Brandenburg-Prussia, the concept of absolute monarchy was notably characterized by the monarch's emphasis on being the 'first servant of the state,' a philosophy that combined absolute power with a sense of duty to the realm.

Describe the evolution of Prussia's governmental form from 1525 to 1918.

Prussia was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern as a feudal monarchy from 1525 to 1701. It then transitioned to an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848, before becoming a federal semi-constitutional monarchy from 1848 until the monarchy's abolition during the German Revolution in 1918.

What significant reforms did King Frederick the Great introduce in Prussia?

King Frederick the Great, who adopted the title 'King of Prussia' in 1772, practiced enlightened absolutism. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture, and established the principle that the Crown would not interfere in judicial matters. He also promoted advanced secondary education, which became a model for other countries.

What was the impact of the Prussian education system?

The Prussian education system, which included advanced secondary education (the forerunner of today's German gymnasium), was designed to prepare bright students for university studies. This system was widely emulated in various countries, including the United States.

How did the Tsars and emperors of Russia govern until 1905?

Until 1905, the Tsars and emperors of Russia governed as absolute monarchs, holding supreme and unrestricted power over the state and its subjects.

What was Ivan IV's method of rule, and what was the 'oprichnina'?

Ivan IV, also known as 'the Terrible,' was known for his reign of terror, which was enforced through the 'oprichnina.' This was a state policy that involved the creation of a separate territory within Russia, governed by Ivan IV himself, with its own administration and army, used to suppress opposition and consolidate his power.

What legitimized the rule of the Romanov dynasty after the Time of Troubles?

Following the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century, the traditional alliance of autocratic monarchy, the church, and the aristocracy was widely perceived as the sole foundation for preserving social order and Russian statehood, thereby legitimizing the rule of the Romanov dynasty.

What changes did Peter the Great bring to the Russian monarchy?

Peter I, known as 'the Great,' significantly reduced the power of the Russian nobility and strengthened the central authority of the monarch. He achieved this by establishing a more centralized bureaucracy, consolidating power in the hands of the Tsar.

When did Russia abolish absolutism compared to other European countries?

Russia was the last European country, excluding Vatican City, to abolish absolutism, doing so as late as the 20th century. This was significantly later than the Ottoman Empire, which drafted its first constitution in 1876.

Which continental empires collapsed after World War I?

After World War I, four continental empires collapsed: Germany, Austria–Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia, marking a significant shift in the global political landscape.

How did the Romanov rule in Russia conclude?

The Romanov family's three centuries of rule in Russia came to an end in 1918 when the Bolsheviks executed them, marking a definitive end to the Russian monarchy.

What were the Revolutions of 1848 also known as?

The Revolutions of 1848, a series of widespread political upheavals across Europe, were also known as the 'Springtime of the Peoples' or the 'Springtime of Nations,' reflecting a period of significant social and political change.

Which contemporary nations have formally moved towards constitutional monarchy but still grant significant power to their monarchs?

Nations such as Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Qatar have formally transitioned towards a constitutional monarchy. However, in practice, their monarchs retain substantial powers, often rendering the parliament's influence on political life as negligible or merely advisory.

What events led to the abolition of the Nepalese monarchy?

The Nepalese monarchy was abolished on May 28, 2008, following a period of political instability that included several shifts between constitutional and direct rule, the Maoist insurgency, and the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre.

What was the situation regarding the King's control over the Legislative Assembly in Tonga until 2010?

Until 2010, the King of Tonga held majority control over the Legislative Assembly, indicating a significant concentration of power in the monarch's hands.

How did Liechtenstein expand the power of its monarch in 2003?

In 2003, Liechtenstein significantly expanded the power of its monarch, the Prince of Liechtenstein, after a constitutional referendum. This granted the prince extensive new powers, including the ability to dismiss the government, nominate judges, and veto legislation.

What was the Venice Commission's assessment of Liechtenstein's constitutional amendments in 2003?

The Venice Commission of the Council of Europe published a report prior to Liechtenstein's 2003 referendum, concluding that the proposed amendments were incompatible with European standards of democracy. They effectively argued that these changes would make Liechtenstein a de facto absolute monarchy.

What threat did Prince Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein make regarding the referendum on his powers?

Just before the 2003 referendum, Prince Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein threatened to leave the country and move his assets out of Liechtenstein if voters chose to restrict his powers, indicating his strong desire to maintain his authority.

What makes Vatican City a unique absolute monarchy?

Vatican City is a unique absolute monarchy because it is also a microstate, an ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and an elective monarchy. It is the smallest state in the world by both area and population, and its monarch is elected rather than hereditary.

Who is the absolute monarch of Vatican City, and how is he chosen?

The Pope is the absolute monarch of Vatican City. He is elected by a papal conclave, which requires a two-thirds supermajority vote from the cardinals.

What is the basis for citizenship in Vatican City?

Unlike other states where citizenship is based on birthright (jus soli) or descent (jus sanguinis), citizenship in Vatican City is granted on the basis of 'jus officii,' meaning it is tied to an appointment to work in service of the Holy See. It typically ceases when the appointment ends, though it can extend to a citizen's spouse and children living in the city.

What are the legal and constitutional foundations of Saudi Arabia's absolute monarchy?

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy where the King must adhere to Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, as stipulated by the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted in 1992. The Quran and the Sunnah (traditions of Prophet Muhammad) are declared to be the Kingdom's Constitution, but no written modern constitution has been formally promulgated.

What are the characteristics of Saudi Arabia's political system regarding elections and parties?

Saudi Arabia's political system does not permit political parties or national elections. It remains the only Arab nation where national elections have never occurred since its founding, and it was measured as the world's most authoritarian regime in 2023 by the V-Dem Democracy indices.

How is Oman's government structured under its absolute monarchy?

Oman is an absolute monarchy where the Sultan serves as both the head of state and head of government. The Sultan's position is hereditary, and he appoints a cabinet to assist him. Additionally, the Sultan holds the roles of supreme commander of the armed forces and prime minister, and all political parties are banned in Oman.

What is the scholarly debate surrounding the extent of absolutism among European monarchs?

Historians hold varied opinions on the true extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, like Perry Anderson, argue that many monarchs achieved significant absolute control, while others, such as Roger Mettam, question the very concept of absolutism, emphasizing the gap between monarchical rhetoric and the practical limits of their power.

According to William Bouwsma, what clearly indicated the limits of royal power?

Renaissance historian William Bouwsma argued that the limits of royal power were clearly indicated by the fact that governments were consistently in financial difficulty. They were often unable to access the wealth of those most capable of paying taxes and risked costly revolts whenever they attempted to generate sufficient income.

Which intellectual figures supported the concept of absolute monarchy?

Intellectual figures who supported absolute monarchy include Jean Domat, who defended it in works like 'On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy' as God's intended natural order, as well as Thomas Hobbes and Charles Maurras.

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What Is?

Defining Absolute Monarchy

Absolute monarchy represents a governmental structure where the sovereign holds the entirety of political power, operating without the constraints of a constitution, legislative bodies, or any other checks on their authority. This form of governance positions the monarch as the singular source of state power.

Distinctions in Governance

It is crucial to differentiate absolute monarchies from constitutional monarchies. In the latter, the monarch's authority is explicitly limited by a constitution, a legislature, or established unwritten customs. Examples of constitutional monarchies include the United Kingdom and the Nordic countries, where a prime minister often balances the monarch's role. Furthermore, absolute monarchies should not be conflated with hereditary dictatorships, such as those seen in North Korea or Ba'athist Syria, despite superficial similarities in leadership succession.

Global Presence

Historically, numerous absolute monarchs have shaped nations, with prominent figures like Louis XIV of France and Frederick the Great of Prussia. In the contemporary world, several states continue to operate under this system. These include Brunei, Eswatini, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Vatican City. Additionally, the individual emirates that constitute the United Arab Emirates function as absolute monarchies, forming a unique federal monarchy.

History

Beyond Europe

Absolute monarchy was not confined to the European continent. In the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan wielded absolute power, often referred to as a "Padishah" or "Great King," and was seen as the "Shadow of God on Earth," signifying a heavenly mandate. Ancient Mesopotamia also saw many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia, and Sumer govern as absolute monarchs.

Imperial China's emperors, and notably Empress Wu Zetian, exercised absolute power justified by the Mandate of Heaven. In pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was led by a Sapa Inca, considered the son of Inti, the sun god, holding absolute dominion. The Joseon dynasty in Korea also functioned as an absolute monarchy.

European Foundations

In Europe, the theological concept of the "divine right of kings" frequently served as the bedrock for absolute monarchy. This doctrine asserted that monarchs derived their authority directly from God, rendering them accountable to no earthly power and their subjects without the right to limit their rule.

England and Scotland

James VI and I, followed by his son Charles I, attempted to introduce the divine right principle into Scotland and England. Charles I's efforts to impose episcopal polity on the Church of Scotland ignited the Bishops' Wars and fueled fears of an absolutist government, contributing significantly to the English Civil War. Charles I notably governed without Parliament for eleven years starting in 1629.

Denmark–Norway

Absolutism in Denmark–Norway was uniquely codified in Europe through the "King's Law" (Kongeloven) of 1665. This document declared the monarch "the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone." This law effectively dismantled other power centers, such as the Council of the Realm in Denmark. Absolute monarchy persisted in Norway until 1814 and in Denmark until 1848.

Europe

French Absolutism: Louis XIV

Louis XIV of France (1638–1715), famously attributed with the declaration "L'état, c'est moi!" ('I am the State!'), epitomized absolute monarchy. His reign, though marked by grand projects like the Palace of Versailles, saw the king consolidate legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He functioned as the supreme judicial authority, possessing the power to condemn individuals without appeal and to both create and annul laws.

Prussian Enlightenment: Frederick the Great

In Brandenburg-Prussia, the House of Hohenzollern ruled as an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848. King Frederick the Great, who adopted the title "King of Prussia" in 1772, exemplified "enlightened absolutism." He famously considered himself the "first servant of the state." His reforms included introducing a general civil code, abolishing torture, and establishing the principle of judicial independence from the Crown. He also championed an advanced secondary education system, which became a model for other nations.

Russian Autocracy: The Tsars

Until 1905, the Tsars and Emperors of Russia governed as absolute monarchs. Ivan IV, known as "the Terrible," established a reign of terror through the oprichnina. Following the 17th-century Time of Troubles, the alliance of autocratic monarchy, the church, and the aristocracy was seen as essential for state preservation. Peter I ("the Great") significantly curtailed the power of the Russian nobility and centralized monarchical authority through a new bureaucracy. This tradition was further expanded by Catherine II and her successors. Russia was the last major European country (excluding Vatican City) to abolish absolutism, doing so in the 20th century. The Romanov dynasty's three-century rule ended with their execution by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

Current

Contemporary Shifts

The Revolutions of 1848, often termed the "Springtime of the Peoples," marked significant political upheavals across Europe, leading many nations away from absolute rule. Today, several countries, such as Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Qatar, have formally transitioned to constitutional monarchies. However, in practice, their monarchs often retain substantial powers, with parliamentary influence sometimes remaining negligible or merely consultative.

Nepal experienced multiple shifts between constitutional and direct monarchical rule, influenced by the Nepalese Civil War, the Maoist insurgency, and the 2001 royal massacre, ultimately leading to the abolition of its monarchy on May 28, 2008.

In Tonga, the king maintained majority control over the Legislative Assembly until 2010, indicating a gradual shift towards more distributed power.

Liechtenstein's Unique Path

Liechtenstein presents a unique case, having moved towards *expanding* the monarch's power. Following a 2003 constitutional referendum, the Prince of Liechtenstein was granted significantly enhanced authority, including the power to dismiss the government, nominate judges, and veto legislation. The Venice Commission of the Council of Europe noted that these amendments effectively rendered Liechtenstein a de facto absolute monarchy, a position reinforced by Prince Hans-Adam II's prior threat to relocate his assets if his powers were curtailed.

Vatican City: An Elective Absolute Monarchy

Vatican City stands as a distinctive absolute monarchy. It is a microstate, an ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and an elective monarchy. The Pope, as the Bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church, serves as the absolute monarch of Vatican City. The Pope is elected by a papal conclave through a two-thirds supermajority vote. Citizenship in Vatican City is granted based on jus officii (by virtue of office or appointment to serve the Holy See), rather than by birth or bloodline, and typically ceases upon the termination of that appointment. It is the smallest state globally by both area and population.

Current Absolute Monarchs

Realm	Monarch	Born	Age	Since	Length	Succession
Brunei Darussalam	Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah	15 July 1946	79 years, 56 days	4 October 1967	57 years, 340 days	Hereditary
Emirate of Sharjah	Ruler Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi	2 July 1939	86 years, 69 days	25 January 1972	53 years, 227 days	Hereditary
Emirate of Fujairah	Ruler Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi	22 February 1949	76 years, 199 days	18 September 1974	50 years, 356 days	Hereditary
Emirate of Ajman	Ruler Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi III	1931	93–94 years	6 September 1981	44 years, 3 days	Hereditary
Kingdom of Eswatini	Ngwenyama Mswati III	19 April 1968	57 years, 143 days	25 April 1986	39 years, 137 days	Hereditary and elective
Emirate of Dubai	Ruler Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum	15 July 1949	76 years, 56 days	4 January 2006	19 years, 248 days	Hereditary
Emirate of Umm al-Quwain	Ruler Saud bin Rashid Al Mualla	1 October 1952	72 years, 343 days	2 January 2009	16 years, 250 days	Hereditary
Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah	Ruler Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi	10 February 1956	69 years, 211 days	27 October 2010	14 years, 317 days	Hereditary
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia	King Salman bin Abdul‘aziz	31 December 1935	89 years, 252 days	23 January 2015	10 years, 229 days	Hereditary and elective
Sultanate of Oman	Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al Said	11 October 1954	70 years, 333 days	11 January 2020	5 years, 241 days	Hereditary
Emirate of Abu Dhabi	Ruler Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan	11 March 1961	64 years, 182 days	13 May 2022	3 years, 119 days	Hereditary
Vatican City State	Pope Leo XIV	14 September 1955	69 years, 360 days	8 May 2025	124 days	Elective

Scholarship

Debates on Absolutism's Extent

Historians hold diverse views regarding the actual extent of absolutist control wielded by European monarchs. Scholars like Perry Anderson contend that many monarchs indeed achieved significant levels of absolute power over their states. Conversely, historians such as Roger Mettam challenge the very concept of absolutism, arguing that rulers labeled as "absolutist" often exercised no more effective power than their non-absolutist counterparts. These critiques frequently highlight the disparity between the grand rhetoric of monarchs and the practical limitations on their authority.

Renaissance historian William Bouwsma succinctly captured this inherent contradiction:

Nothing so clearly indicates the limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those ablest to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income.

— William Bouwsma

Theoretical Underpinnings

Various academic disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, ethology, and political science, endeavor to elucidate the emergence and persistence of absolute monarchy. Explanations range from broad extrapolations of human societal development to specific Marxist interpretations, which view the class struggle as a fundamental dynamic driving historical evolution and, by extension, the rise of absolute monarchical systems.

Proponents of Absolute Rule

Throughout history, several influential intellectual figures have articulated defenses for the concept of absolute monarchy. The 17th-century French legal theorist Jean Domat, in works such as "On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy," argued that absolute monarchy was essential for preserving the natural order, aligning with divine intent. Other notable proponents include the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, known for his work "Leviathan," and the French political theorist Charles Maurras.

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References

Mousnier, R. The Institutions of France under the Absolute Monarchy, 1598-2012 V1. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1979.

The Western Experience, Seventh Edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

David Fraser, Frederick the Great: King of Prussia (2001) online

Bouwsma, William J., in Kimmel, Michael S. Absolutism and Its Discontents: State and Society in Seventeenth-Century France and England. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988, 15

A full list of references for this article are available at the Absolute monarchy Wikipedia page

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The Unfettered Crown

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What Is? ℹ️

🏛️ Defining Absolute Monarchy

⚖️ Distinctions in Governance

🌍 Global Presence

History 📜

🌏 Beyond Europe

🏰 European Foundations

England and Scotland

Denmark–Norway

Europe 👑

⚜️ French Absolutism: Louis XIV

🦅 Prussian Enlightenment: Frederick the Great

🐻 Russian Autocracy: The Tsars

Current 🗺️

📈 Contemporary Shifts

🇱🇮 Liechtenstein's Unique Path

🇻🇦 Vatican City: An Elective Absolute Monarchy

Current Absolute Monarchs 🤴

Scholarship 📚

💡 Debates on Absolutism's Extent

🧠 Theoretical Underpinnings

🗣️ Proponents of Absolute Rule

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What Is?

Defining Absolute Monarchy

Distinctions in Governance

Global Presence

History

Beyond Europe

European Foundations

Europe

French Absolutism: Louis XIV

Prussian Enlightenment: Frederick the Great

Russian Autocracy: The Tsars

Current

Contemporary Shifts

Liechtenstein's Unique Path

Vatican City: An Elective Absolute Monarchy

Current Absolute Monarchs

Scholarship

Debates on Absolutism's Extent

Theoretical Underpinnings

Proponents of Absolute Rule

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice