What was the Age of Enlightenment, and during which historical period did it primarily flourish?

The Age of Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a significant intellectual and cultural movement that originated in Western Europe during the late 17th century and reached its peak in the 18th century. It emphasized reason, empirical evidence, and the scientific method, promoting ideals such as individual liberty, religious tolerance, and progress.

What core philosophical and scientific ideas underpinned the Age of Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment was characterized by a strong emphasis on reason, empirical evidence, and the scientific method. Thinkers advocated for individual liberty, religious tolerance, progress, and natural rights, applying rational principles to social and political reform.

Which historical period and intellectual movement laid the groundwork for the Age of Enlightenment?

The Age of Enlightenment emerged from and built upon the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. Foundational philosophical ideas were also laid by thinkers like René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, and John Locke.

What are the commonly cited starting and ending points for the Age of Enlightenment?

While there's no strict consensus, European historians traditionally dated the Enlightenment's beginning to the death of Louis XIV in 1715 and its end with the French Revolution in 1789. However, some scholars now extend its end to the death of Immanuel Kant in 1804, or even later, recognizing its continued influence.

How did Enlightenment ideas spread across Europe and beyond?

Enlightenment ideas circulated widely through various institutions, including scientific academies, literary salons, coffeehouses, Masonic lodges, and a burgeoning print culture encompassing books, journals, and pamphlets.

What impact did Enlightenment ideas have on traditional authorities like monarchies and religious institutions?

The ideas of the Enlightenment significantly undermined the authority of monarchies and religious officials. This intellectual shift paved the way for the political revolutions that occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Which 19th-century movements trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment?

Several 19th-century movements, including liberalism, socialism, and neoclassicism, draw their intellectual lineage directly from the core ideas and principles established during the Age of Enlightenment.

What was the significance of René Descartes' *Discourse on the Method* in relation to the Enlightenment?

René Descartes' *Discourse on the Method*, published in 1637, is often cited as a starting point for the Enlightenment due to its systematic approach to doubt and its famous dictum, 'Cogito, ergo sum' ('I think, therefore I am'), which shifted focus towards internal certainty.

How did Isaac Newton's *Principia Mathematica* contribute to the Enlightenment?

Isaac Newton's *Principia Mathematica*, published in 1687, is seen by many as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and a key marker for the beginning of the Enlightenment. Its formulation of the laws of motion and universal gravitation provided a powerful example of rational, empirical inquiry.

What were the key differences between the 'moderate' and 'Radical' Enlightenment, according to Jonathan Israel?

Jonathan Israel distinguished between the moderate Enlightenment, following figures like Descartes and Locke, which sought accommodation with traditional powers, and the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by Spinoza, which advocated for democracy, individual liberty, and the eradication of religious authority.

How did the *Encyclopédie* contribute to the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas?

The *Encyclopédie*, compiled by Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and over 150 collaborators between 1751 and 1772, was a monumental 35-volume work that helped spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe and beyond by compiling and explaining knowledge from various fields.

What were some of the most influential publications of the Enlightenment era?

Key publications included John Locke's *A Letter Concerning Toleration* and *Two Treatises of Government*, Voltaire's *Letters on the English* and *Philosophical Dictionary*, Montesquieu's *The Spirit of the Laws*, Rousseau's *Discourse on Inequality* and *The Social Contract*, Cesare Beccaria's *On Crimes and Punishments*, Adam Smith's *The Wealth of Nations*, and Kant's *Critique of Pure Reason*.

What role did Francis Bacon and René Descartes play in shaping Enlightenment philosophy?

Francis Bacon's empiricism and René Descartes' rationalist philosophy laid the groundwork for Enlightenment thinking. Descartes' method of doubt and his dualistic doctrine of mind and matter, while refined by Locke and Hume, were foundational, while Bacon's emphasis on empirical observation was equally crucial.

How did Enlightenment thinkers approach the relationship between morality and religion?

Enlightenment thinkers sought to reform faith, often returning to simpler scriptural interpretations and limiting religious controversy's spillover into politics. Many advocated for religious tolerance, with figures like Locke emphasizing belief in Christ the redeemer, while others like Spinoza and Mendelssohn focused on morality as distinct from theology.

What was the concept of 'enlightened absolutism' during this period?

Enlightened absolutism refers to the practice of certain European rulers, such as Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, who embraced and attempted to implement Enlightenment ideals like religious and political tolerance to strengthen their states, often acting as 'philosopher-kings'.

What were John Locke's key contributions to Enlightenment political theory?

John Locke's contributions included his social contract theory, asserting that government authority derives from the consent of the governed. He argued for natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, and posited that government's role was limited to protecting these rights.

How did Jean-Jacques Rousseau's social contract theory differ from Locke's?

While both Locke and Rousseau based their theories on a social contract and the consent of the governed, Rousseau emphasized the corruption of 'civil man' by private property and advocated for unity through the 'general will' of the collective legislative body, preserving individual freedom within this collective.

What was the stance of many Enlightenment thinkers regarding religious tolerance and the separation of church and state?

Many Enlightenment thinkers strongly advocated for religious tolerance and the separation of church and state. They aimed to prevent religious conflict from spilling into politics and to protect individual conscience from governmental control, ideas particularly influential in the formation of the United States.

How did the Enlightenment manifest differently in various European nations?

The Enlightenment varied by region; in France, it was often associated with radical anti-government and anti-Church sentiments. In Germany, it permeated the middle classes with a more spiritual and nationalistic tone, generally without challenging the state or established churches.

What was the role of scientific societies and academies during the Enlightenment?

Scientific societies and academies largely replaced universities as centers for scientific research and development during the Enlightenment. They were crucial for the professionalization of science, fostering knowledge creation, overseeing publications, and controlling membership.

How did science become popularized during the Enlightenment?

The popularization of science was a key development, driven by an increasingly literate population and the efforts of *philosophes*. Works like the *Encyclopédie* and Voltaire's and Émilie du Châtelet's explanations of Newtonianism made scientific theories more accessible to the public.

What was the significance of the 'Republic of Letters' during the Enlightenment?

The 'Republic of Letters' was an intellectual community that transcended political boundaries, fostering the free exchange and critical examination of ideas. It supported egalitarianism and the dissemination of knowledge, acting as a counterweight to state and religious authority.

What role did women play in the French Enlightenment, particularly in the salons?

Women played a crucial role as *salonnières* in Parisian salons, which served as central social institutions for the Republic of Letters. They acted as 'governors' of discourse, facilitating the discussions and intellectual exchanges that characterized the Enlightenment.

How did coffeehouses contribute to the spread of Enlightenment ideas?

Coffeehouses provided a unique environment where people from diverse social classes could gather, share ideas, and engage in free-thinking and self-discovery. They fostered a culture that challenged class distinctions and became centers for intellectual discourse and the nascent journalism of the era.

What was the impact of the Enlightenment on the arts and music?

The Enlightenment cultivated the arts by emphasizing reason and learning, making literature, philosophy, and the fine arts more accessible to the growing middle class. Public concerts became popular, and composers like Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are considered to embody Enlightenment ideals.

How did the book industry and print culture evolve during the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment saw a significant expansion of print culture, with increased production and consumption of books, journals, and pamphlets. Industrial Revolution advancements lowered prices, making reading materials more accessible, while the rise of lending libraries, coffeehouse reading rooms, and even clandestine booksellers broadened access to information.

What were the key characteristics of 'natural history' during the Enlightenment?

Natural history gained importance as a scientific genre, particularly among the upper classes. It encompassed fields like botany, zoology, and mineralogy, serving an instructive purpose while also acting as a political tool for establishing social hierarchies and scientific authority.

How did scientific and literary journals contribute to the Enlightenment's intellectual landscape?

Journals were a crucial innovation, shifting public attention from traditional authorities to novelty and promoting Enlightenment ideals like toleration and intellectual objectivity. They served as a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, implicitly critiquing established monopolies on truth.

What was the significance of encyclopedias and dictionaries during the Enlightenment?

Encyclopedias and dictionaries became vital tools for systematizing knowledge and educating a wider audience. Their alphabetical organization, focus on secular matters like science and technology, and increasing accessibility made them emblematic of the Enlightenment's rational and egalitarian spirit.

How did the Enlightenment challenge traditional views on religion and promote secularism?

Enlightenment thinkers sought to curtail the political power of organized religion, partly to prevent religious wars. They introduced concepts like Deism, questioned religious dogma, and advocated for secular states, separation of church and state, and morality based on reason rather than divine authority.

What were the main criticisms leveled against the Enlightenment?

Critics, particularly from conservative and clerical circles, accused the Enlightenment of shallow rationalism, naive optimism, and moral relativism. Romantic philosophers argued that its excessive reliance on reason neglected the importance of history, myth, faith, and tradition.

How did the Enlightenment's focus on reason impact its views on women and non-European peoples?

The Enlightenment's philosophical discourse often overlooked the rights of women and non-European peoples, and it was frequently Eurocentric. Scientific racism emerged during this period, classifying non-Europeans as irrational to justify European dominance.

What is the 'public sphere' as conceptualized by Jürgen Habermas in the context of the Enlightenment?

Habermas described the 'public sphere' as a realm of communication characterized by new arenas for debate, accessible urban spaces, and a surge in print culture. It was seen as egalitarian, focused on 'common concern,' and founded on reason, allowing for critical examination of society independent of state authority.

How did the rise of the modern nation-state and capitalism relate to the development of the public sphere?

The consolidation of public power by the modern nation-state created a private realm of society independent from state control, fostering the public sphere. Simultaneously, capitalism increased societal autonomy and self-awareness, driving the need for information exchange that fueled the public sphere's expansion.

What were the primary characteristics of the Scottish Enlightenment?

The Scottish Enlightenment emphasized principles of sociability, equality, and utility, disseminated through institutions like universities and reading societies. It fostered an intellectual infrastructure that significantly contributed to the transatlantic Enlightenment, with figures like Adam Smith making major contributions to economics.

How did the Enlightenment influence political thought and governance in the American colonies?

Enlightenment political thought, particularly Locke's theories on natural rights and the social contract, heavily influenced the American colonies. These ideas underpinned the American Revolution and were incorporated into foundational documents like the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

What was the role of Freemasonry during the Enlightenment?

Freemasonry served as an international network for like-minded men, promoting Enlightenment ideals of liberty, fraternity, and equality. It provided a model for self-government and cross-social interaction, though its direct political impact and egalitarianism are debated by historians.

How did the Enlightenment impact the study and practice of law and criminology?

Enlightenment thinkers like Cesare Beccaria revolutionized legal thought with works such as *On Crimes and Punishments*. Beccaria condemned torture and the death penalty, laying the foundation for classical criminal theory and modern penology by advocating for rational and humane criminal justice.

What was the 'science of man' developed by Scottish Enlightenment thinkers?

The 'science of man,' developed by Scottish Enlightenment thinkers like David Hume and Adam Ferguson, sought to study human behavior scientifically, merging historical analysis of ancient cultures with an understanding of modern societal forces. This movement significantly influenced the origins of modern sociology and classical liberalism.

How did the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason affect its relationship with traditional religious dogma?

The Enlightenment's focus on reason led to increased questioning of religious dogma. Thinkers often sought to reconcile faith with reason, reinterpreted religious texts, or adopted Deist views, which emphasized a creator God accessible through reason rather than divine revelation.

What were some of the key scientific advancements or fields that flourished during the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment saw significant advancements in various scientific fields, including chemistry (with Antoine Lavoisier), physics, mathematics, anatomy, magnetism, and electricity. The practice of medicine also saw development, and the classification of biological organisms (taxonomy) was refined.

How did the Enlightenment's approach to knowledge differ from earlier periods?

The Enlightenment emphasized systematizing knowledge and making it accessible to a broader audience beyond the elite. This contrasted with earlier periods where knowledge was often confined to religious or state authorities, and it fueled the creation of comprehensive works like encyclopedias.

What was the significance of the 'reading revolution' described by Rolf Engelsing?

Rolf Engelsing described a 'reading revolution' occurring after 1750, where reading shifted from intensive (repeated reading of a few books) to extensive (reading many books). This change, supported by rising literacy rates, particularly among women, reflected a broader cultural shift towards broader engagement with knowledge.

How did the Enlightenment's ideas interact with the phenomenon of European colonialism?

The Enlightenment's ideals often clashed with the realities of European colonialism. While promoting liberty and rights, many European powers did not extend these principles to their colonies, which often relied on slave labor, highlighting the limitations and contradictions within Enlightenment thought regarding race and subjugation.

What role did the concept of 'progress' play in Enlightenment thought?

Progress was a central ideal of the Enlightenment, closely linked to the advancement of reason, science, and human knowledge. Thinkers believed that through rational inquiry and the application of scientific methods, society could continually improve and achieve greater happiness and liberty.

How did the Enlightenment influence the development of modern political concepts like constitutional government and the separation of powers?

The Enlightenment was foundational to modern political thought, advocating for constitutional government and the separation of powers, as notably articulated by Montesquieu. These ideas aimed to limit governmental authority, protect individual liberties, and ensure a balance of power, influencing the structure of many modern democracies.

What was the 'Counter-Enlightenment,' and how did it respond to Enlightenment ideas?

The 'Counter-Enlightenment,' a term coined by Sir Isaiah Berlin, represented a critical response to the Enlightenment's rationalist and materialist tendencies. Its defenders championed traditional religious and political authorities, arguing against the perceived moral decline and shallow rationalism associated with Enlightenment thought.

How did the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and science challenge traditional religious authority?

By prioritizing reason and empirical observation, the Enlightenment challenged the foundations of religious dogma and the absolute authority of religious institutions. This led to debates about faith versus reason, the role of miracles, and the advocacy for religious tolerance and secular governance.

What is the significance of the phrase 'sapere aude' in the context of the Enlightenment?

'Sapere aude,' meaning 'dare to know,' is a phrase famously associated with Immanuel Kant's essay 'Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?'. It encapsulates the Enlightenment's core encouragement for individuals to use their own reason and understanding without direction from another.

How did the Enlightenment's intellectual currents contribute to the French Revolution?

The *philosophes* of the French Enlightenment, through their critiques of the *Ancien Régime* and their promotion of ideas like equality, natural law, and popular sovereignty, played a significant role in undermining the legitimacy of the existing political and social order, thereby shaping the French Revolution.

Age Of Enlightenment Wiki: The Enlightenment: A Symphony of Reason and Revolution

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

An Epoch of Intellectual Awakening

Historical Context

The Age of Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a pivotal period in European and Western civilization history. Emerging in the late 17th century and peaking in the 18th century, it profoundly influenced Europe and its colonies, particularly the Americas.

Core Tenets

Characterized by an emphasis on reason, empirical evidence, and the scientific method, the Enlightenment championed ideals of individual liberty, religious tolerance, progress, and natural rights. Its thinkers advocated for constitutional government and the separation of church and state.

Roots and Reach

Building upon the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment's philosophical foundations were laid by figures like Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, and Locke. Its ideas spread widely through salons, coffeehouses, journals, and books, challenging traditional authorities.

Foundations of Modern Thought

Reason and Empiricism

Central to Enlightenment philosophy was the elevation of reason and empirical evidence. Thinkers like Francis Bacon championed empiricism, while René Descartes laid groundwork for rationalism, emphasizing systematic doubt and logical deduction.

Social Contract Theory

Philosophers like Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau explored the concept of the social contract, positing that government authority derives from the consent of the governed. Locke, in particular, emphasized natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Natural Rights

A cornerstone of Enlightenment thought was the belief in inherent, inalienable natural rights. John Locke famously articulated these as the rights to "Life, Liberty, and Property," which governments are obligated to protect.

The Scientific Revolution's Legacy

Advancing Knowledge

The Enlightenment built directly upon the Scientific Revolution, with figures like Galileo, Kepler, and Newton establishing new methods of empirical inquiry. This era saw significant advancements in physics, mathematics, chemistry, and natural history.

Practical Applications

Scientific discoveries translated into practical innovations. Antoine Lavoisier's experiments led to modern chemical plants, and the Montgolfier brothers achieved the first manned flight in a hot air balloon, demonstrating the era's spirit of progress.

Dissemination of Ideas

The Encyclopédie, compiled by Diderot, d'Alembert, and others, was a monumental work that disseminated Enlightenment ideas across Europe. It served as a crucial vehicle for spreading rational thought and scientific knowledge.

Reshaping Governance

Enlightened Absolutism

Rulers like Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia embraced Enlightenment ideals, implementing reforms in governance, law, and administration. This "enlightened absolutism" aimed to strengthen states through rational policies.

American Revolution

Enlightenment principles profoundly influenced the American Revolution. Figures like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson integrated ideas of natural rights, consent of the governed, and liberty into foundational documents like the Declaration of Independence.

French Revolution

The Enlightenment's critique of the Ancien Régime and its emphasis on reason fueled the French Revolution. Thinkers like Rousseau and Voltaire challenged traditional hierarchies, paving the way for radical political change.

Reason and Faith

Religious Tolerance

Reacting to centuries of religious conflict, Enlightenment thinkers advocated for religious tolerance and the separation of church and state. Voltaire famously argued for viewing all people as brothers, regardless of faith.

Deism and Skepticism

Many Enlightenment figures embraced Deism, believing in a Creator God but rejecting religious dogma and miracles, relying instead on reason. Skepticism towards traditional religious authority was widespread, though true atheism was less common.

Moral Philosophy

Thinkers like Francis Hutcheson proposed utilitarian principles, emphasizing "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." This focus on morality derived from reason, rather than solely divine revelation, marked a significant shift.

Pillars of the Enlightenment

Locke and Hobbes

John Locke's theories on natural rights, social contract, and limited government, alongside Thomas Hobbes' foundational ideas on political order, profoundly shaped Enlightenment political philosophy.

Voltaire and Rousseau

Voltaire championed religious tolerance and freedom of speech, while Jean-Jacques Rousseau explored democratic ideals and the general will. Both were central figures in the French Enlightenment.

Kant and Hume

Immanuel Kant sought to reconcile rationalism and faith, defining the Enlightenment's motto "dare to know." David Hume contributed significantly to empiricism and skepticism, influencing subsequent philosophical discourse.

Adam Smith

Adam Smith, a key figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, laid the foundations for modern economics with his work The Wealth of Nations, advocating for free markets and capitalism.

Mary Wollstonecraft

A pioneering feminist philosopher, Mary Wollstonecraft argued for women's rational equality in her seminal work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

Enlightenment Across Europe

Great Britain

The English Enlightenment, though debated, saw influential figures like Locke, Newton, and Gibbon. It emphasized individual improvement and had largely succeeded in integrating liberal ideas into the established order.

Scotland

The Scottish Enlightenment, led by figures like Hume and Smith, fostered a rich intellectual infrastructure, focusing on sociability, equality, and scientific inquiry, significantly influencing transatlantic thought.

France

The French Enlightenment, centered in Paris, was known for its radical critique of church and government, spearheaded by the philosophes and the Encyclopédie.

German States

In the German states, the Aufklärung emphasized cultural and philosophical development, with figures like Kant and Herder shaping national identity and thought, often supported by enlightened rulers.

Anglo-American Colonies

The American Enlightenment saw the integration of European ideas into the revolutionary spirit, emphasizing liberty, republicanism, and religious tolerance, as embodied in the U.S. Constitution.

Enduring Impact

Political Transformation

The Enlightenment laid the groundwork for modern democratic values, constitutional government, and the separation of powers, fundamentally altering political landscapes across the West.

Intellectual Heritage

Its emphasis on reason, science, and individual rights continues to influence contemporary philosophy, ethics, and social discourse, shaping our understanding of progress and human potential.

Counter-Enlightenment

The movement also faced criticism, termed the "Counter-Enlightenment," which defended traditional authorities and values against rationalist critiques, highlighting the ongoing tension between tradition and progress.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Age Of Enlightenment" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about age_of_enlightenment while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

china eastern airlines

haitian creole

china baseball league

erasmus james

order of prince yaroslav the wise

on-base percentage

listed building

battle of flamborough head

cpre

egyptians

References

Mokyr 2011, p. 99: "the Enlightenment was a Western European phenomenon, and after 1750 it reached into Central and Eastern Europe as well, even if it left the Ottoman world and much of southern Europe unaffected."

Liulevicius 2010, p. 47: "the Enlightenment was a shared international movement throughout Europe and the Americas"

Israel 2023, p. 1: "The Enlightenment was a broad international movement"

Eugen Weber, Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1992).

I. Bernard Cohen, "Scientific Revolution and Creativity in the Enlightenment." Eighteenth-Century Life 7.2 (1982): 41â54.

Jeremy Black, "Ancien Regime and Enlightenment. Some Recent Writing on Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe," European History Quarterly 22.2 (1992): 247â55.

Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Renascence Editions, 2000) online

Bruce P. Lenman, Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746â1832 (1993) excerpt and text search

D. Daiches, P. Jones and J. Jones, A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730â1790 (1986).

M. Fry, Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics (Routledge, 1992).

Roland Sarti, Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present, Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 457

Daniel Brewer, The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing eighteenth-century French thought (2008), p. 1

Lorraine Y. Landry, Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory (2000) p. 7

John Stanley, "Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland," Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp. 83â110

Margaret C. Jacob, ed. The Enlightenment: Brief History with Documents, Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001, Introduction, pp. 1â72.

Baruch Spinoza, Theologico-Political Treatise, "Preface," 1677, gutenberg.com

Thomas Paine, Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion, 1804, Internet History Sourcebook

A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present, Second Edition, by Teresa A. Meade

Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment (2003) 1:409â15.

Roy Porter, The creation of the modern world: the untold story of the British Enlightenment (2000), pp. 1â12, 482â484.

J. Repcheck, The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity (Basic Books, 2003), pp. 117â143.

Michael Atiyah, "Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (Dec 2006) 150#4 pp. 591â606.

Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg." German History 20#3 (2002), pp. 279â286.

"The German Enlightenment," German History (Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588â602, round table discussion of historiography.

Thomas P. Saine, The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution (1997)

Michael J. Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere." Modern Intellectual History 5.2 (2008): 195â223.

Pier Luigi Porta, "Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy." The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 18.4 (2011): 521â50.

Franco Venturi, Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century (1972) online

Anna Maria Rao, "Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy." Journal of Modern Italian Studies 10.2 (2005): 142â67.

Aldridge, Alfred Owen. The Ibero-American Enlightenment. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971.

De Vos, Paula S. "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries," Colonial Latin America Review 15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55â79.

Bleichmar, Daniela. Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012.

Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.

Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia," Modern Russian History & Historiography, 2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1â26

Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited." Russian History 37.4 (2010): 360â77.

Ronald P. Toby, State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.

Keith Thomas, "The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment," The New York Review April 3, 2014

Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow p. 126

Norman K. Swazo (2002) Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections pp. 97â99

Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), The Ibero-American Enlightenment (1971)., Franco Venturi, The End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768â1776: The First Crisis.

Mona Ozouf, "'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime"

J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout, and Claude V. Palisca, A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475.

Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (1994), 53.

Erin Mackie, The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998), 16.

Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment, 12, 13. For a more detailed description of French censorship laws, see Darnton, The Literary Underground

Emma Spary, "The 'Nature' of Enlightenment" in The Sciences in Enlightened Europe, William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaffer, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 281â82.

Elizabeth Williams, A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier (2003) p. 50

Caradonna JL. Annales, "Prendre part au siÃ¨cle des LumiÃ¨res: Le concours acadÃ©mique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siÃ¨cle"

Jeremy L. Caradonna, "Prendre part au siÃ¨cle des LumiÃ¨res: Le concours acadÃ©mique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siÃ¨cle," Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales, vol. 64 (mai-juin 2009), n. 3, 633â62.

Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780," This Historical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405â423.

Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49.

Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment," in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds. The Enlightenment World (Routledge, 2004) pp. 272â287.

Reinhart Koselleck, Critique and Crisis, p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988)

Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe (Oxford University Press, 1991.)

Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, "Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites," History of European Ideas 10 no. 3 (1989): 283â94.

Richard Weisberger et al., eds., Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico (2002)

Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution," The Historian Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp. 315+.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Age of Enlightenment Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI, drawing upon historical data and academic interpretations of the Age of Enlightenment. While striving for accuracy and depth suitable for higher education students, it is based on a snapshot of information and may not encompass all nuances or recent scholarly developments.

This is not a substitute for primary source analysis or comprehensive academic research. Users are encouraged to consult original texts and scholarly works for a complete understanding of the subject matter. The information provided is for educational and informational purposes only.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Dawn of Reason

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

An Epoch of Intellectual Awakening🌟

🌍 Historical Context

💡 Core Tenets

🚀 Roots and Reach

Foundations of Modern Thought🤔

🧠 Reason and Empiricism

⚖️ Social Contract Theory

📜 Natural Rights

The Scientific Revolution's Legacy🔬

🔭 Advancing Knowledge

🧪 Practical Applications

📚 Dissemination of Ideas

Reshaping Governance🏛️

👑 Enlightened Absolutism

🇺🇸 American Revolution

🇫🇷 French Revolution

Reason and Faith🕊️

🙏 Religious Tolerance

✨ Deism and Skepticism

📜 Moral Philosophy

Pillars of the Enlightenment👤

📖 Locke and Hobbes

🗣️ Voltaire and Rousseau

🤔 Kant and Hume

💰 Adam Smith

♀️ Mary Wollstonecraft

Enlightenment Across Europe🌐

🇬🇧 Great Britain

🏴󠁧󠁢󠁳󠁣󠁴󠁿 Scotland

🇫🇷 France

🇩🇪 German States

🇺🇸 Anglo-American Colonies

Enduring Impact⏳

🏛️ Political Transformation

💡 Intellectual Heritage

⚠️ Counter-Enlightenment

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

An Epoch of Intellectual Awakening

Historical Context

Core Tenets

Roots and Reach

Foundations of Modern Thought

Reason and Empiricism

Social Contract Theory

Natural Rights

The Scientific Revolution's Legacy

Advancing Knowledge

Practical Applications

Dissemination of Ideas

Reshaping Governance

Enlightened Absolutism

American Revolution

French Revolution

Reason and Faith

Religious Tolerance

Deism and Skepticism

Moral Philosophy

Pillars of the Enlightenment

Locke and Hobbes

Voltaire and Rousseau

Kant and Hume

Adam Smith

Mary Wollstonecraft

Enlightenment Across Europe

Great Britain

Scotland

France

German States

Anglo-American Colonies

Enduring Impact

Political Transformation

Intellectual Heritage

Counter-Enlightenment

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice