The Imperial Chronicle: Ain-i-Akbari
An unparalleled administrative and cultural tapestry of Emperor Akbar's Mughal Empire, meticulously documented by Abu'l Fazl.
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What is Ain-i-Akbari?
A Monumental Record
The Ain-i-Akbari, meaning "Administration of Akbar" in Persian, is a seminal 16th-century document detailing the governance of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar. Authored by his esteemed court historian, Abu'l Fazl, it is written in the Persian language, the official court language of the Mughals.[1] This work constitutes Volume III and the concluding segment of the more extensive historical treatise, the Akbarnama (Account of Akbar), also penned by Abu'l Fazl, and is itself structured into three distinct volumes.[2]
A Window into Mughal Governance
Functioning akin to a comprehensive gazetteer, the Ain-i-Akbari provides invaluable insights into Akbar's reign through a series of administrative reports. As Heinrich Blochmann elucidated, it encapsulates the 'āīn' (mode of governing) of Emperor Akbar, serving as an exhaustive administrative report and statistical compilation of his government around the year 1590.[3][4] This detailed account offers a unique perspective on the operational mechanisms and policies that defined one of India's most influential empires.
Structure of Knowledge
The Ain-i-Akbari is systematically organized into five distinct books, each addressing a specific facet of the empire's functioning and societal structure. These books collectively form a holistic portrayal of the Mughal state, encompassing everything from the imperial household to philosophical discourse. This meticulous organization underscores the comprehensive nature of Abu'l Fazl's scholarly endeavor, providing a structured understanding of a complex historical period.
The Five Volumes
Manzil-Abadi: Imperial Household
The first book, "Manzil-Abadi" (meaning "place establishment"), comprises 90 'Ain' or Regulations. These regulations meticulously describe various administrative segments and occupations of the era. It delves into the imperial mint, detailing its workmen and the intricate processes of refining and extracting gold and silver, alongside discussions of currency like the dirham and dinar. Further sections are dedicated to the Imperial Harem (Ain 15), the royal seals (Ain 20), the imperial kitchen (Ain 23) with its recipes, and rules concerning days of abstinence (Ain 26). This volume also offers extensive descriptions of commodities such as fruits, vegetables, perfumes, and carpets, as well as insights into art and painting. It is an exceptional source for understanding the maintenance of the Mughal army during Akbar's reign, with Ain 35 specifically addressing the use and upkeep of artillery, the branding of royal horses, camels, mules, and elephants, and even the dietary provisions for these animals. Additionally, it includes regulations on laborers' wages and house-building estimates.[5]
Sipah-Abadi: Military & Civil Services
The second book, "Sipah-Abadi" (meaning "military establishment"), illuminates the treatment and organization of the throne's servants, encompassing both military and civil services, as well as the court attendants. It highlights the significant encouragement bestowed upon individuals of literary genius or musical skill by the emperor, underscoring the high value placed on their contributions. Crucially, this volume provides a detailed exposition of the functioning of the Mansabdari System, a hierarchical administrative and military system central to Mughal governance.
Mulk-Abadi: Imperial Administration
The third book, "Mulk-Abadi" (meaning "government establishment" or "government of a country"), is exclusively dedicated to the regulations governing the judicial and executive departments of the empire. It chronicles the establishment of a new and more practical era in administration, the systematic survey of land, the intricate tribal divisions, and the comprehensive rent-roll managed by the finance minister. The brilliant land revenue collection system implemented during the Mughal period by Akbar, under the guidance of Raja Todar Mal, known as Raja Todar Mal's Bandobast, is explained in meticulous detail. This book further provides an exhaustive account of the administration, land revenue collection, and tribal divisions within each of the 15 Subhas (provinces) of Akbar's vast empire.
Law & Society
The fourth book offers a profound exploration of the social conditions and literary activities, particularly in philosophy and law, of the Hindu population, who constituted the majority of the realm. Emperor Akbar recognized the political advancement of this demographic as fundamental to the stability of his empire. Beyond this, the volume includes dedicated chapters on foreign invaders of India, accounts of distinguished travelers, and discussions on Muslim saints and the various sects to which they belonged, providing a rich tapestry of the diverse cultural and religious landscape of the time.
Akbar's Wisdom
The fifth and final book is a compilation of Emperor Akbar's moral sentences, epigrammatical sayings, profound observations, and sagacious rules of wisdom, all meticulously gathered by Abu'l Fazl. This section not only offers direct access to the emperor's philosophical and ethical outlook but also includes an account of Abu'l Fazl's own ancestry and biography, providing a personal touch to this grand historical work.
Illuminating Insights
The Mustard of Man (Ain 76, Book 1)
This Ain provides a fascinating glimpse into the daily operations and personnel management at Akbar's court. It describes the emperor's multifaceted engagements, where a large number of individuals were appointed during assemblies for expenditure. Their merits were carefully assessed, and their knowledge was valued. Requests ranged from seeking clarity on religious doubts to advice on worldly matters or even medicines for ailments. The salaries of numerous individuals from diverse regions such as Iran, Turkey, Europe, Hindustan, and Kashmir were determined and presented to His Majesty by paymasters. While proposals were made by officers, salaries were often increased, reflecting the emperor's generosity. The number of men presented depended on availability, and every Monday, horsemen not mustered the previous week were reviewed. To expand the army and motivate officers, His Majesty granted a present of two dams for each horseman brought.[76]
Educational Regulations (Ain 25, Book 2)
Ain 25 outlines Emperor Akbar's progressive vision for education. His Majesty decreed that every schoolboy must first master the writing of the alphabet's letters and then practice tracing their various forms. This foundational stage was to be completed within two days, after which the student would progress to writing joined letters, a practice to be maintained for a week. Subsequently, boys were to learn prose and poetry by heart, followed by memorizing verses in praise of God or moral sentences, each written separately. A critical aspect of this pedagogy was the emphasis on self-learning, with the teacher providing only minimal assistance. This approach fostered independent study and deep engagement with the material, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of educational principles for the era.[25]
Enduring Legacy
Syed Ahmad Khan's Edition
In 1855, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan completed his scholarly, meticulously researched, and illustrated edition of Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari, a work recognized for its extraordinary complexity. Upon its completion, he presented it to Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib, anticipating his appreciation. Ghalib, however, responded with a concise Persian poem that critiqued the Ain-i-Akbari and, by implication, the opulent, literate, and learned Mughal culture it represented. Ghalib effectively admonished Syed Ahmad Khan for dedicating his talents to 'dead things,' instead praising the "sahibs of England" who, at that time, held sway over all contemporary administrative systems. Ghalib's critique reflected a keen awareness of the shifting global political landscape, particularly within India. While Syed Ahmad Khan may have been initially piqued by Ghalib's admonitions, he recognized the powerful forces influencing the publication. Consequently, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan largely withdrew from active engagement in history and archaeology, though he did edit two other historical texts in subsequent years, neither of which matched the grand scope of the Ain, a triumphant document on Akbar's governance.
Historical Significance
The Ain-i-Akbari stands as an indispensable primary source for understanding the Mughal Empire. Its comprehensive nature, covering administrative regulations, economic data, social customs, and even philosophical insights, makes it a unique historical artifact. For scholars of South Asian history, it offers unparalleled detail into the daily functioning of a vast and complex empire, providing a foundation for studying governance, military organization, revenue systems, and cultural life during Akbar's golden age. Its meticulous records allow for a granular analysis of a pre-modern state, making it a cornerstone for historical research and a testament to the sophisticated intellectual traditions of the Mughal court.
Global Reach
Pioneering English Translations
The Ain-i-Akbari holds the distinction of being one of the earliest Persian texts to be translated into the English language.[6] The original Persian text was systematically translated into English across three volumes. The first volume, encompassing Books I and II, was translated by Heinrich Blochmann and published in 1873. The second volume, containing Book III, was translated by Colonel Henry Sullivan Jarrett and released in 1891. The final volume, also translated by Jarrett and published in 1896, covered Books IV and V. These three seminal volumes were published by the Asiatic Society of Calcutta as part of their prestigious Bibliotheca Indica series, making this monumental work accessible to a wider international scholarly audience.[3][7][8]
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References
References
- Blochmann, H. (tr.) (1927, reprint 1993). The Ain-I Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl Allami, Vol. I, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, preface (first edition)
- Jarrett, H.S. (tr.) (1949, reprint 1993). The Ain-I Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl Allami, Vol. II, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, editor's introduction
- Jarrett, H.S. (tr.) (1948, reprint 1993). The Ain-I Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl Allami, Vol. III, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, editor's introduction
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