What is Arvanitika, and by whom is it traditionally spoken?

Arvanitika is a variety of the Albanian language that is traditionally spoken by the Arvanites, a distinct population group residing in Greece. It is a unique linguistic form that has evolved over centuries.

When and how was Arvanitika introduced to Southern Greece?

Arvanitika was introduced to Southern Greece during the late Middle Ages. It was brought by Albanian settlers who migrated southward from their original homeland in present-day Albania through several waves of settlement.

What are the key linguistic influences and characteristics of Arvanitika?

Arvanitika preserves elements of medieval Albanian, indicating its historical roots. Simultaneously, it has been significantly influenced by the Greek language, incorporating Greek vocabulary and phonological features. This blend makes it a distinct dialect.

What is the current status of Arvanitika in terms of its usage?

Arvanitika is currently considered an endangered language. Its speakers are increasingly shifting to the use of Greek, and most younger members of the Arvanite community no longer speak Arvanitika, leading to a decline in its active use.

What is the etymological origin of the name 'Arvanítika'?

The name 'Arvanítika' and its native equivalent 'Arbërisht' are derived from the ethnonym 'Arvanites'. This ethnonym, in turn, originates from the toponym 'Arbën' or 'Arbër' (Greek: Άρβανον), which was a region in modern Albania during the Middle Ages.

How did Albanians historically refer to themselves using terms related to 'Arbën'?

In the past, native equivalents such as 'Arbërorë' and 'Arbëreshë' were commonly used as self-designations by Albanians in general, reflecting the historical connection to the toponym 'Arbën' or 'Arbër'.

How do many modern Arvanites identify themselves ethnically and nationally, despite their language's origin?

Despite the Albanian origin of their language, many modern Arvanites identify nationally and ethnically as Greeks. They are reported to find historical descriptions of their language as 'Graeco-Albanian' offensive.

To which dialect group of Albanian does Arvanitika belong?

Arvanitika is classified as part of the Tosk dialect group of Albanian. This means it shares close linguistic ties with other Albanian varieties spoken across southern Albania.

How is Arvanitika related to the Arbëresh dialect spoken in Italy?

Arvanitika is closely related to Arbëresh, the dialect of Albanian spoken in Italy. The Arbëresh dialect largely traces its origins back to Arvanite settlers who migrated from Greece to Italy, maintaining a shared linguistic heritage.

What evidence suggests the historical connection between Arbëresh and Greek?

The Arbëresh dialect has retained some words borrowed directly from Greek, such as 'haristis' for 'thank you', 'dhrom' for 'road', and 'Ne' for 'yes' in certain villages. These borrowings indicate a historical linguistic interaction.

What is the degree of mutual intelligibility between Italo-Arbëresh and Graeco-Arvanitika?

Italo-Arbëresh and Graeco-Arvanitika share a mutually intelligible vocabulary base. Any elements that are not mutually intelligible between the two dialects typically stem from the adoption of modern Italian or Greek terms in the absence of native equivalents.

What is the general consensus among linguistic scholars regarding Arvanitika's classification?

Linguistic scholarship unanimously describes Arvanitika as a dialect of Albanian. This classification is based on its inherent linguistic features and its place within the broader Albanian language family.

How do Arvanites generally feel about their language being called 'Albanian'?

Many Arvanites are reported to dislike the use of the name 'Albanian' to designate their language, preferring to refer to it as Arvanitika, which reflects their distinct cultural and national identity as Greeks.

How has sociolinguistic work described Arvanitika?

Sociolinguistic work has described Arvanitika within the conceptual framework of 'ausbausprachen' and 'abstandssprachen', which are terms used to analyze how languages or dialects relate to each other in terms of objective linguistic difference and sociolinguistic development towards an autonomous standard.

What is the degree of mutual intelligibility between Arvanitika and Standard Tosk Albanian?

Linguists' assessments of the mutual intelligibility between Arvanitika and Standard Tosk Albanian vary, ranging from fairly high to only partial, according to Ethnologue. This indicates that while they share commonalities, there can be significant differences.

Is mutual intelligibility consistent across different subdialects of Arvanitika?

No, mutual intelligibility may even be problematic between different subdialects within Arvanitika itself, suggesting a high degree of internal linguistic variation within the language.

How does the mutual intelligibility between Standard Tosk and Arvanitika compare to that between Tosk and Gheg?

Mutual intelligibility between Standard Tosk and Arvanitika is higher than the intelligibility between the two main dialect groups within Albanian, which are Tosk and Gheg. This highlights Arvanitika's closer relationship to Tosk.

What is a strong indicator of Arvanitika's autonomy in sociolinguistic terms?

A strong indicator of Arvanitika's autonomy, in the sociolinguistic sense of 'ausbau' (upgrading towards an autonomous standard language), is the existence of a separate writing system, specifically the Greek-based Arvanitic alphabet.

Was the Greek-based writing system for Arvanitika unique?

No, a very similar Greek-based writing system was also formerly in use by other Tosk Albanian speakers between the 16th and 18th centuries, indicating a broader historical practice of using the Greek script for Albanian dialects.

How is the Arvanitic script used in practice today?

The Arvanitic script is very rarely used in practice today. Arvanitika is almost exclusively a spoken language, primarily confined to the private sphere, rather than being widely written or used in public domains.

What is the stance of Arvanites regarding the use of the Latin alphabet for their language?

There is some disagreement among Arvanites, similar to the Aromanians, as to whether the Latin alphabet should be used to write their language, reflecting differing views on standardization and identity.

Has there been any standardization of spoken or written Arvanitika?

No further standardization towards a common spoken or written Standard Arvanitika has taken place. Spoken Arvanitika remains richly diversified internally into various sub-dialects.

Do Arvanites use Standard Albanian as their standard language?

No, Arvanites do not use Standard Albanian as their standard language. They are generally not literate in the Latin-based standard Albanian orthography and are not reported to use spoken-language media in Standard Albanian.

In what sense is Arvanitika not functionally subordinated to Standard Albanian?

Arvanitika is not functionally subordinated to Standard Albanian as a 'dachsprache' (roof language). This means it does not serve as an overarching standard language for Arvanitika speakers in the way that dialects of a national language typically are within the same country.

What are the three main geographical groups of Arvanitic settlements in Greece?

There are three main groups of Arvanitic settlements in Greece: the largest group in the south (Attica, Boeotia, Peloponnese, and nearby islands), a smaller group in the northwest (contiguous with Albanian-speaking lands), and an outlying group in a few villages in Thrace in the northeast.

Which Arvanitic dialects are considered 'Arvanitika' in the proper sense by some authors?

According to some authors, the term 'Arvanitika' in its proper sense applies only to the southern group of dialects, or to the southern and Thracian groups combined. These are the dialects that have been separated from the core of Albanian for several centuries.

How do the northwestern Arvanitic dialects differ from the southern and Thracian ones?

The dialects in the northwest of Greece are reported to be more similar to neighboring Tosk dialects within Albania and to the speech of the former Cham Albanians. Ethnologue classifies these as part of core Tosk Albanian, distinct from 'Arvanitika Albanian' in the narrow sense.

What term do some groups in northwest Greece use to refer to their language, and what does it imply?

Some groups in northwest Greece are reported to use the term 'Shqip', which means 'Albanian language', to refer to their own language as well as that of Albanian nationals. This usage has sometimes been interpreted as implying that they identify ethnically as Albanians.

How many dialect groups does Sasse (1991) distinguish within the southern Arvanitika area?

Sasse (1991) distinguishes as many as eleven distinct dialect groups within the southern Arvanitika area. These include West Attic, Southeast Attic, Northeast-Attic-Boeotian, West Boeotian, Central Boeotian, Northeast Peloponnesian, Northwest Peloponnesian, South Peloponnesian, West Peloponnesian, Euboean, and Andriote.

What are the estimated numbers of Arvanitika speakers, and what does the term 'terminal speakers' refer to?

Estimated numbers of Arvanitika speakers vary widely, ranging between 30,000 and 150,000. These figures include 'terminal speakers', a term used to describe members of the younger generation who have only acquired an imperfect command of the language and are unlikely to transmit it to future generations.

Are there any monolingual Arvanitika speakers today?

No, there are no monolingual Arvanitika-speakers today, as all speakers are now bilingual in Greek. This widespread bilingualism contributes to the language shift observed.

What are the primary characteristics Arvanitika shares with Tosk Albanian?

Arvanitika shares many features with the Tosk dialect spoken in Southern Albania. This indicates a common linguistic ancestry and development path.

What specific conservative features has Arvanitika preserved that were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk?

Arvanitika has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters that have been simplified in Standard Albanian. An example is 'gljuhë' in Arvanitika, meaning 'language/tongue', compared to 'gjuhë' in Standard Albanian.

What recent linguistic observations indicate the decline of Arvanitika?

In recent times, linguists have observed signs of accelerated structural convergence towards Greek and structural simplification of Arvanitika. These changes are interpreted as signs of 'language attrition', which is the process of a language losing its complexity and distinctiveness, ultimately leading towards language death.

How frequently has Arvanitika been written historically?

Arvanitika has rarely been written throughout its history, primarily existing as a spoken language.

In which alphabets has Arvanitika reportedly been written?

Arvanitika has reportedly been written using both the Greek alphabet, often with the addition of specific letters (b, d, e, j) or diacritics, and the Latin alphabet.

What historical evidence exists of Arvanitika being written?

Texts in Arvanitika have survived in private correspondence, such as letters between Ioannis Orlandos and Georgios Kountouriotis, and other members of the Kountouriotis family from Hydra, all written using the Greek script.

For what public purpose was Arvanitika used in the 19th century?

In the 19th century, Arvanitika was used in election pamphlets in Attica and Boeotia. These pamphlets were published in both Greek and Arvanitika to better propagate party lines among Arvanites and to facilitate communication between non-Arvanite candidates and Arvanite voters.

What grammatical elements are presented in the language samples for Arvanitika?

The language samples for Arvanitika include grammatical information on pronouns, covering personal and possessive pronouns for first, second, and third persons in both singular and plural forms. They also present verb paradigms for the verbs 'HAVE' and 'BE' across various tenses, including present, imperfect, and subjunctive imperfect/perfect forms.

What religious text is used to compare Arvanitika with other Albanian forms?

The Lord's Prayer (Áti ýnë) is used as a sample text to compare Arvanitika with Standard Tosk, Gheg, and Arbëresh Albanian, illustrating the linguistic differences and similarities among these varieties.

What types of common phrases are provided as language samples for Arvanitika?

The language samples for Arvanitika include common phrases related to greetings and basic communication, such as 'Do you speak Arvanitika at all?', 'I speak very little', 'Are you well?', 'How do you do?', and inquiries about family members' well-being.

Arvanitika Wiki: Arvanitika Unveiled: A Linguistic Journey into Greece's Albanian Heritage

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Origins & Identity

A Medieval Migration

Arvanitika is a variety of the Albanian language traditionally spoken by the Arvanites, a population group in Greece. It was introduced to Southern Greece during the late Middle Ages by Albanian settlers who migrated south in several waves. This dialect serves as a linguistic time capsule, preserving elements of medieval Albanian while being profoundly shaped by centuries of contact with the Greek language.

The Name "Arvanitika"

The name Arvanítika and its native equivalent, Arbërisht, originate from the ethnonym Arvanites. This term itself derives from the medieval toponym Arbën or Arbër, which referred to a region in what is now modern Albania. Historically, terms like Arbërorë were used as a self-designation by Albanians in general. Today, however, Arvanitika speakers identify nationally as Greeks, not Albanians, and may find terms like "Graeco-Albanian" to be inaccurate or offensive.

An Endangered Heritage

Arvanitika is classified by UNESCO as a severely endangered language. Over generations, its speakers have shifted to using Greek in nearly all aspects of life. Most younger members of the Arvanite community have only a passive or incomplete knowledge of the language, making its transmission to future generations highly unlikely. This process of language shift threatens the survival of a unique piece of European linguistic heritage.

Linguistic Classification

A Branch of Tosk Albanian

Linguistically, Arvanitika is unequivocally classified as a dialect of Albanian, belonging to the Tosk dialect group spoken in Southern Albania. It shares a close relationship with Arbëresh, the Albanian dialect spoken in Italy, which was largely established by Arvanite settlers from Greece. This shared origin is evident in their mutually intelligible vocabulary and grammatical structures.

Dialect or Language?

The status of Arvanitika is complex. In terms of objective linguistic difference (abstand), it is a dialect of Albanian, with mutual intelligibility with Standard Tosk being fairly high. However, in terms of sociolinguistic development (ausbau), it functions autonomously. Arvanites do not use Standard Albanian as a "roof language" (Dachsprache); they are not typically literate in the standard Latin-based Albanian alphabet and do not consume Albanian media. This functional independence, combined with a distinct (though rarely used) writing system, gives it characteristics of a separate language.

A Greek Identity

Despite the linguistic classification, the social identity of Arvanitika speakers is firmly Greek. They have been an integral part of the Greek nation for centuries, participating in key historical events like the Greek War of Independence. Consequently, many Arvanites dislike designating their language as "Albanian" due to the modern political connotations of the term, preferring the distinct name Arvanitika to reflect their unique cultural and national identity as Greeks.

Geographic Distribution

Three Settlement Groups

Arvanitic-speaking communities are traditionally found in three main areas of Greece:

Southern Greece: The largest group, with over 500 villages across Attica, Boeotia, the Peloponnese, South Euboea, and nearby islands like Salamina and Andros.
Northwestern Greece: A smaller group in Epirus, in areas contiguous with Albania. These dialects are more similar to modern Tosk and the speech of former Cham Albanians.
Northeastern Greece: An outlying group in a few villages in Western Thrace.

The term "Arvanitika" is most precisely applied to the southern group, which has been separated from the main Albanian-speaking area for centuries.

Speaker Population

Estimates of the number of Arvanitika speakers vary widely, from 30,000 to 150,000. This range reflects the difficulty in counting speakers of an endangered language where proficiency levels differ greatly. The higher figures often include "terminal speakers"—younger individuals with only a passive command of the language. Crucially, there are no monolingual Arvanitika speakers today; all are bilingual in Greek, which has become the dominant language in all public and most private domains.

Rich Internal Diversity

The Arvanitika of southern Greece is not monolithic; it is richly subdivided into local dialects. The linguist Hans-Jürgen Sasse identified as many as eleven distinct dialect groups within this region alone, including West Attic, Southeast Attic, Boeotian, various Peloponnesian varieties, and Euboean. This internal diversity reflects centuries of relative isolation between different Arvanite communities after their initial settlement.

Linguistic Features

A Hybrid System

Arvanitika's core grammar and vocabulary are rooted in medieval Tosk Albanian. However, centuries of intense contact with Greek have led to significant structural influence. This is most evident in its vocabulary, which has absorbed a large number of Greek loanwords, and in its phonological system, which has adapted to Greek sound patterns. This blend of features makes it a fascinating case study in language contact and convergence.

Conservative Traits

Due to its relative isolation from the main Albanian linguistic area, Arvanitika has preserved some archaic features that have been lost in modern Standard Albanian. A notable example is the retention of certain syllable-initial consonant clusters that were simplified in the mainstream language. For instance:

Arvanitika: gljuhë (/ˈɡʎuxə/) - "language"
Standard Albanian: gjuhë (/ˈɟuhə/)

This preservation of older forms provides valuable insights into the historical development of the Albanian language.

Language Attrition

In recent decades, linguists have observed clear signs of "language attrition" in Arvanitika. This process, a precursor to language death, involves the structural simplification of the language and accelerated convergence towards Greek. As speakers use Arvanitika in fewer contexts, its grammatical complexity diminishes, and its structures are increasingly remodeled to align with Greek, the dominant language of the community.

The Arvanitic Script

A Greek-Based Alphabet

Arvanitika is primarily a spoken language and has rarely been written. When it has been put to paper, it has historically used a writing system based on the Greek alphabet. This system is supplemented with additional letters (like b, d) or diacritics to represent sounds not found in Greek. A similar Greek-based script was also used by other Orthodox Tosk Albanian speakers between the 16th and 18th centuries before the adoption of the modern Latin-based alphabet.

Arvanitic	Albanian	IPA
Α α	A a	/a/
Β β	V v	/v/
Ƃ b	B b	/b/
Γ γ	G g	/g/
Γϳ γϳ	Gj gj	/ɟ/
Δ δ	Dh dh	/ð/
D d	D d	/d/
Ε ε	E e	/ɛ/
Ε̱ ε̱	Ë ë	/ə/
Ζ ζ	Z z	/z/
Ζ̇ ζ̇	Zh zh	/ʒ/
Θ θ	Th th	/θ/
Ι ι	I i	/i/
Ϳ ϳ	J j	/j/
Κ κ	K k	/k/
Κ̇ κ̇	Q q	/c/
Λ λ	L l	/l/
Λλ λλ	Ll ll	/ɫ/
Λ̇ λ̇	Lj lj	/ʎ/
Μ μ	M m	/m/
Ν ν	N n	/n/
Ν̇ ν̇	Nj nj	/ɲ/
Ο ο	O o	/ɔ/
Π π	P p	/p/
Ρ ρ	R r	/ɾ/
Ṗ ρ̇	Rr rr	/r/
Σ σ	S s	/s/
Σ̈ σ̈	Sh sh	/ʃ/
Τ τ	T t	/t/
ȣ ȣ	U u	/u/
Υ υ	Y y	/y/
Φ φ	F f	/f/
Χ χ	H h	/x/
Χ̇ χ̇	Hj hj	/xʲ/
Τσ τσ	C c	/t͡s/
Τσ̈ τσ̈	Ç ç	/t͡ʃ/
Dσ dσ	X x	/d͡z/
Dσ̈ dσ̈	Xh xh	/d͡ʒ/

Language Samples

Grammar & Vocabulary

The grammar of Arvanitika reveals its Albanian roots through its pronoun system and verb conjugations, while also showing Greek influence. Below are examples of personal pronouns and the conjugation of the fundamental verbs "to have" and "to be".

Pronouns

	Personal	Possessive
I / mine	û	ími
we / ours	ne	íni
you (sg) / yours	ti	íti
you (pl) / yours	ju	júai
he / his	ái	atía
she / hers	ajó	asája
they / theirs	atá / ató	atíre

Verb Paradigms (To Be / To Have)

	BE (Pres)	HAVE (Pres)
1SG (I)	jam	kam
2SG (you)	je	ke
3SG (he/she)	ishtë, është	ka
1PL (we)	jemi	kemi
2PL (you)	jini	kine
3PL (they)	janë	kanë

The Lord's Prayer

Comparing a text like the Lord's Prayer highlights the similarities and differences between Arvanitika and other forms of Albanian. Notice the shared core vocabulary alongside distinct phonetic and lexical choices.

Áti ýnë që jé ndë qiéjet, ushënjtëróft' émëri ýt.

Ati ynë që je në qiell, u shenjtëroftë emri yt.

Ati ynë që je në qiell, shënjtnue kjoftë emni yt.

Tata ghine cè jee në chiex, schetruare clost embri ghit.

Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name.

árthtë mbëretëría jóte, ubëftë dashurími ýt, si ndë qiél, edhé mbë dhét.

arthtë mbretëria jote, u bëftë vullnesa jote, si në qiell, ashtu në tokë.

ardhtë mbretënia jote, u baftë vullneti yt, si në qiell, ashtu në tokë.

jar reghria jòte, bërë clost vulema jùte, si në chiext, astu në dee.

Thy kingdom come, thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.

Common Phrases

These conversational phrases demonstrate the practical use of the language and offer a glimpse into its everyday sound and structure.

Flet fare arbërisht?
(Do you speak Arvanitika at all?)
Flas shumë pak.
(I speak very little.)
Çë bën, je mir?
(How are you? / Are you well?)
Jam shumë mirë.
(I am very well.)
Gruaja jote si ishtë?
(How is your wife?)
Edhé aj isht shum mir.
(He's doing fine, too.)

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References

Misspelled as Arberichte in the Ethnologue report, and in some other sources based on that.

Greek Helsinki Monitor (1995): Report: The Arvanites

E.g. Haebler (1965); Trudgill (1976/77); Sasse (1985, 1991); Breu (1990); Furikis (1934), Babiniotis (1985: 41).

Botsi 2003: 21

GHM 1995, quoting Banfi 1994

A full list of references for this article are available at the Arvanitika Wikipedia page

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Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional linguistic advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for academic linguistic consultation or peer-reviewed research. For rigorous scholarly work, please consult the primary sources and academic literature on the subject.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Arvanitika Unveiled

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Origins & Identity 📜

🗺️ A Medieval Migration

📛 The Name "Arvanitika"

⏳ An Endangered Heritage

Linguistic Classification 🧬

🌳 A Branch of Tosk Albanian

🗣️ Dialect or Language?

🇬🇷 A Greek Identity

Geographic Distribution 📍

🏘️ Three Settlement Groups

📊 Speaker Population

🗺️ Rich Internal Diversity

Linguistic Features 🔬

🇬🇷+🇦🇱 A Hybrid System

🏛️ Conservative Traits

📉 Language Attrition

The Arvanitic Script ✍️

📜 A Greek-Based Alphabet

Language Samples 🗣️

📖 Grammar & Vocabulary

Pronouns

Verb Paradigms (To Be / To Have)

🙏 The Lord's Prayer

💬 Common Phrases

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Origins & Identity

A Medieval Migration

The Name "Arvanitika"

An Endangered Heritage

Linguistic Classification

A Branch of Tosk Albanian

Dialect or Language?

A Greek Identity

Geographic Distribution

Three Settlement Groups

Speaker Population

Rich Internal Diversity

Linguistic Features

A Hybrid System

Conservative Traits

Language Attrition

The Arvanitic Script

A Greek-Based Alphabet

Language Samples

Grammar & Vocabulary

The Lord's Prayer

Common Phrases

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice