What is basalt and what are its primary characteristics?

Basalt is a fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity, magnesium- and iron-rich lava (mafic lava) at or near the surface of a rocky planet or moon. It is the most common type of volcanic rock on Earth, constituting over 90% of all volcanic rock, and shares its chemical composition and mineralogy with the coarser-grained intrusive rock, gabbro.

What are the main chemical components found in basalt?

Basalt is primarily composed of oxides of silicon, iron, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, titanium, and calcium. Its relatively low silica content contributes to the low viscosity of the molten lava.

How do geologists classify basalt based on its mineral content?

Geologists classify basalt using the QAPF diagram, focusing on the relative proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, plagioclase, and feldspathoid. An aphanitic igneous rock is classified as basalt if its QAPF fraction has less than 10% feldspathoid and less than 20% quartz, with plagioclase making up at least 65% of the feldspar content. This classification places it within the basalt/andesite field, distinguished from andesite by a silica content below 52%.

What is the TAS classification for basalt, and why is it used?

When mineral composition is difficult to determine due to fine grain size, geologists use the TAS (Total Alkali-Silica) classification. In this system, basalt is defined as a volcanic rock with 45% to 52% silica and no more than 5% total alkali metal oxides, placing it in the 'B' field of the TAS diagram. This chemical classification is useful for rocks where mineral identification is challenging.

What is the typical color of basalt and what causes it?

Basalt is typically dark grey to black. This coloration is due to its high content of dark-colored pyroxene minerals, such as augite, and other iron-rich minerals like magnetite and ilmenite.

What are leucobasalts, and how do they differ in appearance from typical basalt?

Leucobasalts are a type of basalt that is lighter in color. This lighter appearance is due to a higher concentration of plagioclase feldspar, which is typically a lighter-colored mineral compared to the pyroxenes that give basalt its darker hue.

What is the average density of basalt compared to granite?

The average density of basalt is approximately 2.9 g/cm³, which is slightly denser than granite, whose typical density is around 2.7 g/cm³. This difference in density is related to their differing mineral compositions and crystal structures.

How does the viscosity of basaltic magma compare to water and ketchup?

Basaltic magma has a relatively low viscosity, estimated to be around 10⁴ to 10⁵ centipoise (cP). This viscosity is comparable to that of ketchup, but it is still several orders of magnitude higher than the viscosity of water, which is about 1 cP. This low viscosity allows basaltic lava to flow easily over large areas.

What is porphyritic basalt, and how does it form?

Porphyritic basalt contains larger crystals, known as phenocrysts, embedded within a finer-grained matrix. These phenocrysts formed earlier, while the magma was still underground, and had begun to crystallize before the magma was rapidly cooled and solidified at the surface.

What causes vesicles in basalt, and what are they called when they form a significant part of the rock?

Vesicles in basalt are small cavities formed when dissolved gases escape from the magma as it decompresses during its ascent to the surface, and the lava solidifies before the gases can fully dissipate. When these vesicles make up a substantial portion of the rock's volume, the rock is referred to as scoria.

What are the intrusive equivalents of basalt?

The intrusive equivalents of basalt, which are rocks of similar chemical composition but with coarser grain sizes due to slower cooling beneath the surface, are diabase (also known as dolerite) for hypabyssal intrusions and gabbro for plutonic intrusions.

What types of volcanic rocks were common in Earth's early geological history compared to modern basalts?

During the Hadean, Archean, and early Proterozoic eons, Earth's magmas had different compositions. The resulting ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica content below 45% and high magnesium oxide, are classified as komatiites, unlike the more silica-rich basalts common today.

What is the etymological origin of the word 'basalt'?

The word 'basalt' derives from Late Latin *basaltes*, which was a misspelling of the Latin *basanites*, meaning 'very hard stone.' This, in turn, came from the Ancient Greek word *basanos*, meaning 'touchstone.'

Who first standardized the term 'basalt' in petrology, and where did they apply it?

Georgius Agricola standardized the term 'basalt' in petrology in his 1546 work *De Natura Fossilium*. He applied it to the volcanic black rock found beneath Stolpen castle in Germany, believing it to be the same as the 'basaniten' described by Pliny the Elder.

How does basalt typically form on Earth?

On Earth, basalt primarily forms through decompression melting of the upper mantle. As hot mantle rock ascends due to tectonic forces, the decrease in pressure lowers its melting point, causing it to partially melt and produce basaltic magma.

In what tectonic settings does decompression melting commonly occur to produce basalt?

Decompression melting that produces basalt occurs in several tectonic settings, including continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges, above geological hotspots, and in back-arc basins. Basalt also forms in subduction zones where water released from the descending slab further lowers the melting point of the mantle wedge.

What are the main chemical characteristics of tholeiitic basalt?

Tholeiitic basalt is characterized by being relatively rich in iron and comparatively poor in alkali metals and aluminum. It is the most common type of basalt found on Earth's ocean floors, oceanic islands, and in continental flood basalt formations.

What is Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB), and what are its key chemical features?

Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB) is a type of tholeiitic basalt that erupts predominantly at ocean ridges. It is chemically characterized by low concentrations of incompatible elements and relatively flat rare-earth element (REE) patterns when normalized to mantle values.

How are MORBs further classified based on their incompatible element content?

MORBs are subdivided based on their depletion in incompatible elements: Enriched MORB (E-MORB) has an average amount, Normal MORB (N-MORB) has an average amount, and Depleted MORB (D-MORB) is highly depleted in these elements. Variations in MORB composition along ridges suggest mantle inhomogeneity.

What distinguishes alkali basalt from tholeiitic basalt?

Alkali basalt is distinguished by its higher content of alkali metals and its silica-undersaturated nature, meaning it may contain feldspathoids. Its pyroxenes, typically titanium-enriched augite, differ from those in tholeiitic basalts, and it lacks low-calcium pyroxenes.

What are high-alumina basalts, and where are they typically found?

High-alumina basalts contain more than 17% alumina (Al₂O₃) and represent an intermediate composition between tholeiitic and alkali basalts. They are often found in volcanic arcs situated above subduction zones and are characteristic of the lower-silica end of the calc-alkaline magma series.

What is boninite, and what are its defining chemical features?

Boninite is a high-magnesium variety of basalt typically erupted in back-arc basins. It is recognized by its low titanium content and specific trace-element composition.

What are ocean island basalts (OIBs), and what do their compositions suggest about their source?

Ocean island basalts (OIBs) include both tholeiitic and alkali basalts, with tholeiites often dominating early in an island's eruptive history. Their elevated concentrations of incompatible elements suggest that their source mantle material has produced little magma in the past, indicating it is relatively undepleted.

What are the primary minerals found in basalt?

The primary minerals in basalt are calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Olivine can also be a significant constituent, along with accessory minerals like iron oxides (magnetite, ulvöspinel) and ilmenite.

How does the presence of iron oxides in basalt affect its properties?

The iron oxides present in basalt, such as magnetite and ilmenite, can impart a strong magnetic signature to the rock as it cools. This property makes basalt valuable for paleomagnetic studies, which investigate the Earth's past magnetic field.

What are the typical mineral assemblages found in tholeiitic basalt?

Tholeiitic basalts commonly contain pyroxene (augite, orthopyroxene, or pigeonite) and calcium-rich plagioclase as phenocrysts. Olivine may also be present as phenocrysts, sometimes rimmed by pigeonite. The groundmass may contain interstitial quartz, tridymite, or cristobalite.

What are the characteristic mineral assemblages of alkali basalts?

Alkali basalts typically lack orthopyroxene but contain olivine. Their feldspar phenocrysts range from labradorite to andesine, and their augite is richer in titanium compared to that in tholeiitic basalts. The groundmass can include alkali feldspar, leucite, nepheline, sodalite, phlogopite mica, and apatite.

What are the liquidus and solidus temperatures of basalt compared to other igneous rocks?

Basalt has high liquidus (melting point of the last crystal) and solidus (temperature at which melting begins) temperatures. Surface temperatures are typically above 1200°C for the liquidus and below 1000°C for the solidus, which are higher than those of many other common igneous rocks.

At what depths within the Earth are tholeiitic and alkali basalts thought to originate?

Tholeiitic basalts are generally believed to form at depths of approximately 50-100 km within the mantle. Alkali basalts may originate from greater depths, potentially ranging from 150-200 km.

What is the significance of the europium anomaly in basalt geochemistry?

The europium anomaly, which refers to the relative abundance of europium compared to other rare-earth elements (REEs) in basalt, is a useful diagnostic tool. It arises because Eu²⁺ can substitute for Ca²⁺ in plagioclase feldspar, unlike other REEs which primarily exist as Eu³⁺, indicating specific crystallization processes.

How do the isotopic ratios of elements like strontium and neodymium in basalts help scientists?

Isotopic ratios of elements such as strontium, neodymium, lead, hafnium, and osmium found in basalts are extensively studied by geologists. These ratios provide crucial insights into the evolution and processes occurring deep within the Earth's mantle over geological time.

What is the significance of helium isotope ratios (³He/⁴He) in basalts?

Helium isotope ratios, particularly ³He/⁴He, are valuable indicators of mantle source characteristics. Mid-ocean ridge basalts typically show ratios from 6 to 10 (normalized to atmospheric values), while ocean-island basalts, thought to originate from mantle plumes, exhibit higher ratios, often ranging from 15 to 24 or more.

What are the likely source rocks for basaltic magma?

The source rocks for the partial melts that generate basaltic magma are believed to include both peridotite and pyroxenite, which are ultramafic rocks found in the Earth's mantle.

How does the eruption environment (subaerial vs. submarine) affect basalt morphology?

The eruption environment significantly influences basalt morphology. Subaerial (above-ground) eruptions can produce scoria, ash, cinder, and lava flows, while submarine (underwater) eruptions, especially at greater depths, tend to form pillow basalts due to rapid quenching by water.

What causes columnar basalt formations, and what is their typical shape?

Columnar basalt forms when thick lava flows cool and contract. This contraction creates a network of joints or fractures, predominantly resulting in polygonal columns, often hexagonal, as the lava shrinks horizontally. The size of the columns can vary depending on the cooling rate.

What are pillow basalts, and what do they indicate about their formation?

Pillow basalts are characterized by their rounded, pillow-like shapes, formed when basaltic lava erupts underwater or flows into the sea. The rapid cooling by water creates a glassy crust, and the lava breaks through to form new pillows, indicating an underwater origin.

What is a littoral cone, and how does it form?

A littoral cone is a small, cone-shaped accumulation of tuffaceous debris formed when blocky 'a'a lava enters the ocean. The interaction between the hot lava and seawater causes explosive steam generation, fragmenting the lava and building the cone.

What are Surtseyan eruptions, and what materials do they produce?

Surtseyan eruptions occur when magma erupts explosively underwater, often producing large quantities of steam, gas, and pyroclastic materials like pumice and tuff. These eruptions are common in shallower water depths where steam generation is more vigorous.

What is the significance of basalt being the most common volcanic rock on Earth?

Basalt's prevalence, making up over 90% of Earth's volcanic rock, highlights its fundamental role in shaping the planet's crust. It forms the majority of the oceanic tectonic plates, generated at mid-ocean ridges, and is a key component of many oceanic islands and large igneous provinces.

What are some examples of large igneous provinces (LIPs) composed of basalt?

Examples of large igneous provinces dominated by basalt include continental flood basalts like the Deccan Traps in India, the Siberian Traps in Russia, the Karoo province in South Africa, and the Columbia River Plateau in the United States. Oceanic LIPs include formations on oceanic islands and extensive lava plains.

How does the weathering of basalt differ from that of granite?

Basalt weathers more rapidly than granite because its constituent minerals crystallized at higher temperatures and are less stable in the surface environment. The fine grain size and potential presence of volcanic glass in basalt also contribute to faster weathering. Additionally, basalt's high iron content leads to characteristic reddish-brown staining from iron oxides.

What is laterite soil, and how is it related to basalt weathering?

Laterite is a type of soil commonly found in tropical regions, characterized by its high concentration of iron and aluminum oxides. It forms from the intense chemical weathering of basalt, where minerals like montmorillonite are further altered into kaolinite and gibbsite, leaving behind these residual metals.

How does basalt weathering contribute to carbon sequestration?

The chemical weathering of basalt releases cations like calcium, which react with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) to form calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). This process effectively traps CO₂ from the atmosphere, acting as a natural carbon sink, particularly when basalt deposits are submerged in water.

What metamorphic rocks can basalt transform into under different conditions?

Under intense heat and pressure, basalt can metamorphose into other rock types. Depending on the specific temperature and pressure conditions, these transformations can result in greenschist, amphibolite, or eclogite.

What role do microbes play in the alteration of underwater basalt?

Microbial activity is significant in the chemical exchange between underwater basalt and seawater. Bacteria, particularly iron-oxidizing types, can utilize the reduced iron (Fe(II)) and manganese (Mn(II)) present in basalt as energy sources, contributing to the alteration of the oceanic crust and potentially influencing the origin of life.

What are some common uses of basalt?

Basalt is utilized in various applications, including construction materials (building blocks, foundations), cobblestones (especially from columnar basalt), statues, and in the production of stone wool, which serves as an excellent thermal insulator. It is also being studied for its potential in carbon sequestration.

How is basalt used in the context of carbon sequestration?

Basalt is investigated for carbon sequestration because its minerals can react with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) and convert it into stable carbonate minerals. This process is particularly effective when basalt deposits are submerged, as the water acts as a barrier to prevent the re-release of CO₂.

What are the dark plains on the Moon called, and what are they made of?

The dark areas visible on the Moon's surface are known as the lunar maria, and they are primarily composed of plains of basaltic lava flows. These lunar basalts were sampled by Apollo missions and are represented in lunar meteorites.

How do lunar basalts differ chemically from terrestrial basalts?

Lunar basalts generally have higher iron content, typically ranging from 17% to 22% FeO, compared to terrestrial basalts. They also exhibit a wide range of titanium concentrations, historically used for classification into high-Ti, low-Ti, and very-low-Ti types.

What are some unique textural and mineralogical features of lunar basalts compared to Earth basalts?

Lunar basalts display unique features such as shock metamorphism, a lack of oxidation typically seen in terrestrial basalts, and a complete absence of hydration. These differences reflect the Moon's distinct geological history and environment, including its lack of atmosphere and water.

What evidence suggests that Venus has basaltic plains?

Data from Soviet Venera and VEGA landers, which conducted geochemical measurements on Venus's surface, returned results consistent with basaltic rocks. Furthermore, the radar signatures of Venus's plains, which cover about 80% of the surface, are indicative of basaltic lava flows.

Basalt Wiki: Basalt: Earth's Volcanic Foundation

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Definition and Characteristics

Aphanitic Extrusive Igneous Rock

Basalt is a fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of magnesium- and iron-rich (mafic) lava exposed at or near the surface of a rocky planet or moon.^[3] Its rapid cooling results in a fine-grained texture, known as aphanitic, where individual mineral crystals are typically too small to be seen with the naked eye.^[3]

Earth's Volcanic Backbone

Basalt constitutes over 90% of all volcanic rock on Earth, forming the primary crustal component of the ocean floor and many oceanic islands.^[81] It is the extrusive equivalent of the coarser-grained intrusive rock, gabbro, sharing the same chemical and mineralogical composition.^[3]

Planetary Presence

Beyond Earth, basaltic compositions are prevalent across the Solar System. The plains of Venus are largely basaltic, the lunar maria are vast fields of flood-basaltic lava flows, and basalt is a common surface rock on Mars.^[3] Even the asteroid Vesta exhibits basaltic characteristics.

Classification and Composition

Mineralogical Classification

Geologists classify igneous rocks based on mineral content, primarily using the QAPF diagram. Basalt is defined as an aphanitic rock with less than 10% feldspathoid and less than 20% quartz, where plagioclase constitutes at least 65% of its feldspar content.^{^}^{^} This places it within the basalt/andesite field, distinguished from andesite by a silica content below 52%.^{^}

Chemical Classification (TAS)

When mineral identification is impractical due to fine grain size, chemical analysis is used. The Total Alkali-Silica (TAS) classification places basalt in field B, characterized by 45-52% silica (SiO₂) and no more than 5% total alkali oxides (Na₂O + K₂O).^{^}^{^} This composition is described as mafic.^{^}

Color and Texture

Basalt is typically dark grey to black due to its high content of mafic minerals like pyroxene and olivine.^{^} However, it can range to lighter shades if rich in plagioclase (leucobasalt).^{^} Basalts often exhibit a porphyritic texture, with larger phenocrysts embedded in a finer groundmass.

Types of Basalt

Tholeiitic Basalt

This is the most common type, forming the majority of the ocean floor and large continental flood basalt provinces. It is characterized by relatively high iron and low alkali and aluminum content, often containing pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase.^{^}

Alkali Basalt

Rich in alkali metals and silica-undersaturated, alkali basalts may contain feldspathoids. They are characteristic of continental rifting zones and hotspot volcanism, often found on oceanic islands.^{^}

High-Alumina Basalt

Intermediate between tholeiitic and alkali basalts, these are distinguished by higher alumina content (typically >17%). They are commonly associated with volcanic arcs situated above subduction zones.^{^}

Boninite

A rare, high-magnesium variety of basalt, boninite is typically low in titanium and originates from back-arc basins. Its distinct trace-element composition provides insights into specific tectonic environments.^{^}

Formation and Petrology

Mantle Melting

Basaltic magmas predominantly originate from the partial melting of the Earth's upper mantle, driven by decompression melting as hot mantle material ascends.^{^} The high pressures in the mantle keep rocks solid, but upward movement reduces pressure, lowering the melting point and initiating magma formation.

Tectonic Settings

Decompression melting occurs in various tectonic settings, including mid-ocean ridges, continental rift zones, and above mantle plumes (geological hotspots).^{^}^{^} Subduction zones also contribute, where water released from descending slabs further lowers the mantle wedge's melting point.

Crystallization Processes

As basaltic magma cools, minerals crystallize according to Bowen's reaction series. Early-forming, high-temperature minerals like olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase often develop as phenocrysts within the finer-grained groundmass.^{^}

Geochemistry

Elemental Composition

Basalt is characterized by its mafic composition, typically containing 45-52% SiO₂, 5-14% FeO, and significant amounts of MgO and CaO. Its alkali content (Na₂O + K₂O) is generally low, distinguishing it from more alkaline rock types.^{^}

Trace Elements and Isotopes

The study of trace elements, particularly rare-earth elements (REE) and their associated anomalies (e.g., the europium anomaly), provides insights into magma evolution and source mantle processes.^{^} Isotopic ratios of elements like strontium, neodymium, and lead are crucial for understanding the long-term evolution of Earth's mantle.^{^}

Noble Gases

Isotopic ratios of noble gases, such as Helium-3/Helium-4 (³He/⁴He), are particularly valuable. High ratios in ocean-island basalts suggest derivation from deep mantle plumes, distinct from the lower ratios found in mid-ocean ridge basalts.^{^}

Distribution

Earth's Crust

Basalt is the most abundant volcanic rock on Earth, forming the oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges and the foundation of oceanic islands like Hawaii.^{^}^{^} Continental flood basalt provinces, such as the Deccan Traps and Siberian Traps, represent massive outpourings of basaltic lava.^{^}

Solar System Bodies

Basaltic geology is widespread beyond Earth. The lunar maria are composed of basaltic lava flows, and basalt is a common surface material on Mars and Venus.^{^} The asteroid Vesta is also a significant source of basaltic meteorites.

Io's Activity

Jupiter's moon Io exhibits intense volcanic activity, with surface features primarily composed of basaltic lava flows. Temperature measurements suggest eruption temperatures reaching up to 1600 K, indicating ongoing geological processes.^{^}

Alteration and Metamorphism

Weathering

Basalt weathers relatively rapidly due to the instability of its constituent minerals in surface environments. This process often results in iron oxides staining the rock reddish-brown and the formation of clays like kaolinite. The released cations can buffer soil acidity and sequester atmospheric CO₂.^{^}

Metamorphism

Under conditions of high temperature and pressure, basalt transforms into metamorphic rocks such as greenschist, amphibolite, or eclogite. These metamorphosed basalts, often found in greenstone belts, are significant hosts for hydrothermal ore deposits.^{^}

Uses of Basalt

Construction and Art

Basalt has been utilized historically and presently in construction for building blocks, foundations, and as cobbles (particularly columnar basalt). Its durability also makes it suitable for carving statues, such as the ancient Code of Hammurabi stele.^{^}^{^}

Industrial Applications

Extruded basalt can be processed into stone wool, an excellent thermal and acoustic insulator.^{^}^{^}^{^}^{^} Furthermore, its potential for carbon sequestration through mineral carbonation is an area of active research.^{^}

Life on Basaltic Rocks

Microbial Influence

The chemical composition of basalt, particularly its iron and manganese content, provides energy sources for microbial life. Interactions between microbes and basaltic rocks, especially submarine ones, are thought to play a role in chemical exchange and may have implications for understanding the origin of life.^{^}

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References

Blatt & Tracy 1996, pp. 151â156, 191â195, 162â163, 200.

[1], Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History Global Volcanism Program (2013).

Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980, pp. 254â257.

Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980, pp. 263â264.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Basalt Wikipedia page

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This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional geological advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional geological consultation, analysis, or interpretation. Always refer to official geological surveys, academic literature, and consult with qualified geologists for specific applications or research needs. Never disregard professional advice because of something you have read on this website.

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Basalt: Earth's Volcanic Foundation

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Definition and Characteristics ℹ️

💎 Aphanitic Extrusive Igneous Rock

🌍 Earth's Volcanic Backbone

🪐 Planetary Presence

Classification and Composition 🔬

📊 Mineralogical Classification

🧪 Chemical Classification (TAS)

🎨 Color and Texture

Types of Basalt 🌋

🌊 Tholeiitic Basalt

🏜️ Alkali Basalt

⛰️ High-Alumina Basalt

🔥 Boninite

Formation and Petrology ⚙️

🌡️ Mantle Melting

tectonic Tectonic Settings

🧊 Crystallization Processes

Geochemistry ⚛️

元素 Elemental Composition

📈 Trace Elements and Isotopes

💨 Noble Gases

Distribution 📍

🌐 Earth's Crust

🚀 Solar System Bodies

🌋 Io's Activity

Alteration and Metamorphism ⏳

🍂 Weathering

🔥 Metamorphism

Uses of Basalt 🛠️

🏛️ Construction and Art

🏭 Industrial Applications

Life on Basaltic Rocks 🦠

🌱 Microbial Influence

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Definition and Characteristics

Aphanitic Extrusive Igneous Rock

Earth's Volcanic Backbone

Planetary Presence

Classification and Composition

Mineralogical Classification

Chemical Classification (TAS)

Color and Texture

Types of Basalt

Tholeiitic Basalt

Alkali Basalt

High-Alumina Basalt

Boninite

Formation and Petrology

Mantle Melting

Tectonic Settings

Crystallization Processes

Geochemistry

Elemental Composition

Trace Elements and Isotopes

Noble Gases

Distribution

Earth's Crust

Solar System Bodies

Io's Activity

Alteration and Metamorphism

Weathering

Metamorphism

Uses of Basalt

Construction and Art

Industrial Applications

Life on Basaltic Rocks

Microbial Influence

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice