The First Volley
Fort Sumter and the Genesis of the American Civil War: An academic exploration into the pivotal bombardment that ignited the conflict.
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Overview
The Spark of Conflict
The Battle of Fort Sumter, also known as the Attack on Fort Sumter or the Fall of Fort Sumter, occurred from April 12–13, 1861. This pivotal engagement involved the bombardment of Fort Sumter, located near Charleston, South Carolina, by the South Carolina militia. The battle concluded with the surrender of the fort by the United States Army, marking the official commencement of the American Civil War.
Key Engagement Metrics
This table summarizes the critical details of the Battle of Fort Sumter:
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Date | April 12–13, 1861 |
| Location | Charleston, South Carolina, U.S. |
| Result | Confederate victory; Confederacy captures Fort Sumter; Beginning of the American Civil War |
| Belligerents | United States (Union) vs. Confederate States |
| Union Commander | Major Robert Anderson [5] |
| Confederate Commander | Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard |
| Union Strength | 85 men [2][3] |
| Confederate Strength | 500–6,000 (estimated) [4] |
| Casualties | 0 (direct combat deaths on either side) [5] |
Context
Secession's Dawn
Following Abraham Lincoln's victory in the 1860 presidential election, South Carolina formally declared its secession from the United States on December 20, 1860. By February 1861, six additional Southern states had followed suit, forming the Confederate States of America with its provisional capital in Montgomery, Alabama. These seceding states promptly seized federal properties within their borders, including buildings, arsenals, and fortifications. President James Buchanan, while protesting these actions, refrained from overt military intervention, fearing it might provoke further secessions among the remaining slave states. He also grappled with the constitutional authority to prevent secession, believing none existed to compel states to remain in the Union.[8][9]
Charleston's Fortifications
Charleston Harbor housed several critical fortifications, notably Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie. Fort Moultrie, the older of the two, served as the U.S. Army garrison's headquarters. However, its design prioritized harbor defense over land-based assault protection, rendering it vulnerable. Local newspapers even highlighted its weak land defenses, noting sand dunes that could be easily scaled.[10][11][12] In contrast, Fort Sumter, though incomplete, was strategically positioned to dominate the harbor entrance and was intended to be a formidable fortress. In the escalating tensions of late 1860, Major Robert Anderson, a seasoned officer and protégé of General Winfield Scott, was appointed to command the Charleston garrison, tasked with navigating the deepening crisis.[13][14]
Prelude
Anderson's Strategic Move
Recognizing Fort Moultrie's indefensible position against land attack, Major Robert Anderson executed a clandestine relocation of his small command to Fort Sumter on December 26, 1860, just six days after South Carolina's secession. Under the cover of darkness, his troops spiked Moultrie's guns and burned their carriages before moving by small boats to the more secure Fort Sumter.[15][16] South Carolina authorities viewed this as a breach of trust, particularly Governor Francis Wilkinson Pickens, who believed President Buchanan had implicitly promised to keep Sumter unoccupied. Anderson, however, acted within his December 11 War Department instructions, which authorized him to move his command to any fort he deemed most proper to increase its power of resistance if hostile acts were imminent.[17][18]
The Star of the West Incident
In response to Anderson's move, Governor Pickens ordered the seizure of all remaining federal positions in Charleston Harbor except Fort Sumter. State troops quickly occupied Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, and the battery on Morris Island, capturing numerous guns. On December 27, Castle Pinckney was also seized, and by December 30, the federal arsenal in Charleston fell, providing the Confederates with over 22,000 weapons.[N 1] President Buchanan, despite his dismay at Anderson's actions, authorized a relief expedition of supplies and 200 soldiers aboard the unarmed merchant ship, Star of the West. As the ship approached Charleston Harbor on January 9, 1861, it was fired upon by shore batteries on Morris Island and Fort Moultrie, forcing its withdrawal. Major Anderson, unaware of the relief mission's specifics, chose not to engage, thus avoiding an immediate escalation.[24][25][26]
Confederate Fortification
Throughout the winter of 1860–1861, conditions at Fort Sumter were challenging, with limited rations and fuel. Anderson's garrison of 85 men, primarily two artillery companies, worked to complete the fort's defenses, which were only about 90% finished. The fort was designed for 135 guns and 650 men, highlighting the severe manpower shortage. Its guns were primarily aimed at the Atlantic, leaving it vulnerable to land-based artillery. In March, Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, the first general officer of the newly formed Confederate States Army, assumed command of Confederate forces in Charleston. Beauregard, a former artillery instructor of Anderson's at West Point, diligently strengthened the batteries surrounding Fort Sumter, ensuring no supplies reached the Union garrison and training the South Carolina militia to operate their captured artillery.[31][32]
Decisions
Lincoln's Dilemma
Upon his inauguration on March 4, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln was immediately confronted with the critical supply situation at Fort Sumter, with only six weeks of rations remaining. A similar crisis was unfolding at Fort Pickens in Florida. Lincoln and his cabinet debated the strategic and political implications of reinforcing these forts, particularly the risk of initiating open hostilities. Both the Union and the Confederacy were wary of being perceived as the aggressor, fearing the loss of political support in the crucial border states. Lincoln even considered evacuating Fort Sumter if it would guarantee Virginia's loyalty, remarking, "A state for a fort is no bad business."[34][35][36]
Failed Diplomacy
The Confederate States of America, after its formation, sent delegations to Washington, D.C., offering to pay for federal properties and negotiate a peace treaty. However, President Lincoln refused to engage in negotiations, as he did not recognize the Confederacy as a legitimate nation, believing that any treaty would imply sovereign recognition. Despite this, Secretary of State William H. Seward engaged in unauthorized, indirect negotiations, which ultimately proved unsuccessful.[37]
The Ultimatum
As the supply situation at Fort Sumter grew dire, President Lincoln ordered a relief expedition on April 4, led by Gustavus V. Fox. Fox's orders were to deliver provisions, and if met with resistance, to use U.S. Navy vessels to land both supplies and men. Lincoln formally notified Governor Pickens of South Carolina on April 6 that an attempt would be made to supply the fort with provisions only, and that no military action would be taken unless the attempt was resisted or the fort attacked.[38][39][40][41] President Davis, upon consultation with Beauregard, ordered the Confederate commander to reiterate the demand for Sumter's surrender and, if refused, to reduce the fort before the relief expedition could arrive. Only Confederate Secretary of State Robert Toombs opposed this decision, warning that the attack would "lose us every friend at the North" and "strike a hornet's nest."[42]
Attack
First Shots Fired
At 1:00 a.m. on April 12, Beauregard's aides delivered a final message to Major Anderson, demanding his evacuation. Anderson replied he would evacuate by noon on April 15, provided he received no new orders or supplies. Deeming this conditional, Colonel James Chesnut delivered Beauregard's reply at 3:20 a.m.: "Sir: by authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time."[43][44][45][46]
At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, Lieutenant Henry S. Farley fired a single 10-inch mortar round from Fort Johnson, signaling the start of the general bombardment. This initial shot, famously declined by Virginia secessionist Roger Pryor, was followed by a barrage from 43 Confederate guns and mortars positioned around Charleston Harbor. The guns fired in a counterclockwise sequence, with two-minute intervals, to conserve ammunition. Edmund Ruffin, another prominent Virginia secessionist, fired one of the first shots from the Iron Battery at Cummings Point.[48][N 2]
Union's Defense
Major Anderson's garrison withheld fire until daylight, with Captain Abner Doubleday firing the first Union shot at 7:00 a.m. The Union forces, severely outmanned, could not operate all 60 of their guns. They strategically avoided using guns on the exposed barbette tier, focusing instead on the 21 working guns on the lowest level. These lower guns, however, had limited elevation, making it difficult to effectively target Fort Moultrie. Ammunition was critically low, with only 700 gunpowder cartridges available initially, forcing workmen to frantically sew more, even using Anderson's personal socks. Due to these shortages, Anderson reduced his firing to just six guns, targeting Cummings Point, Fort Moultrie, and the Sullivan's Island batteries.[52][53]
Fires and Failed Relief
As the bombardment continued, Confederate forces began targeting Fort Sumter's wooden barracks and officer quarters with heated shot, causing significant fires. A rain shower at 7:00 p.m. on April 12 temporarily extinguished the flames, and Union gunners ceased fire for the night, concerned about a potential infantry assault. The next morning, the full bombardment resumed, with Confederates focusing on hot shot. By noon on April 13, most of the fort's wooden structures and the main gate were ablaze. The fires threatened the main ammunition magazine, containing 300 barrels of gunpowder. Union soldiers desperately tried to move the barrels, but two-thirds were left behind as Anderson deemed it too dangerous. He ordered the remaining barrels thrown into the sea, but the tide repeatedly brought them back, some igniting from incoming artillery rounds.[55][56] Meanwhile, Fox's relief expedition arrived on April 12, but heavy seas and persistent artillery fire prevented smaller craft from reaching the fort, leaving Anderson and his men to endure the relentless assault.[54]
Outcome
The Surrender
At 1:00 p.m. on April 13, Fort Sumter's central flagpole was knocked down, leading Confederates to believe the fort was ready to surrender. Colonel Louis Wigfall, a former U.S. senator, took it upon himself to approach the fort under a white handkerchief, offering terms of evacuation. Major Anderson, facing critically low ammunition, raging fires, and exhausted men, and having endured over 3,000 Confederate rounds without a single direct combat fatality, agreed to a truce at 2:00 p.m. He was encouraged by Wigfall's use of "evacuate" rather than "surrender." However, a delegation of officers from Beauregard later disavowed Wigfall's authority, nearly causing Anderson to resume firing, until General Beauregard himself sent a second set of officers offering similar terms, reinstating the agreement.[57][58][59][60]
Tragic Casualties
The Union garrison formally surrendered the fort to Confederate personnel at 2:30 p.m. on April 13. While no one was killed during the bombardment itself, a tragic incident occurred during the 100-gun salute to the U.S. flag, a condition Anderson had stipulated for withdrawal. A pile of cartridges exploded from a spark, mortally wounding privates Daniel Hough and Edward Galloway, and seriously injuring four other gun crew members. These were the first military fatalities of the war. The salute was halted at fifty shots. Hough was buried at Fort Sumter, and Galloway died a few days later in a Charleston hospital. The remaining Union troops were transported to Fox's relief ship, Baltic, outside the harbor bar.[61][62][63]
Legacy
A Nation Divided
The bombardment of Fort Sumter served as the catalyst for the American Civil War. Following the surrender, a wave of fervent support for the Union swept through the North, rallying behind President Lincoln's call for states to provide 75,000 volunteers for 90 days to suppress the rebellion. Northern states quickly met their quotas, with Ohio alone capable of supplying the full demand within 16 days.[68][69] However, this call for troops provoked a strong negative reaction in several border states. Governors like Claiborne Jackson of Missouri and Beriah Magoffin of Kentucky explicitly refused to furnish troops for what they termed an "unholy crusade" against their Southern counterparts.[70] This escalation ultimately led four additional slave states to declare their secession and join the Confederacy, deepening the national divide and setting the stage for a four-year conflict that concluded in April 1865 with General Robert E. Lee's surrender.[71][72]
Fort Sumter's War Journey
Charleston Harbor remained under Confederate control for nearly the entire duration of the war, creating a significant gap in the Union naval blockade. Union forces launched major operations in 1862 and 1863 to capture Charleston, including overland assaults and naval bombardments against Fort Sumter. Despite being pounded to rubble by artillery fire, a final amphibious attempt to occupy the fort in September 1863 (the Second Battle of Fort Sumter) was repulsed. The Confederates finally evacuated Fort Sumter and Charleston in February 1865, as Union Major General William T. Sherman's Carolinas campaign outflanked the city. Poignantly, on April 14, 1865, exactly four years after lowering it in surrender, Robert Anderson, by then a major general, returned to the ruined fort to raise the Fort Sumter Flag once more.[73]
Enduring Tributes
The Battle of Fort Sumter and its profound significance have been commemorated in various ways. The Fort Sumter Flag, carried north by Major Anderson, became a powerful symbol and rallying point for Union supporters, inspiring Frederic Edwin Church's painting Our Banner in the Sky, which was then sold as a chromolithograph to benefit Union soldiers' families.[65][66] In 1961, the U.S. Post Office Department issued the Fort Sumter Centennial stamp, the first in a series marking the Civil War Centennial. Designed by Charles R. Chickering, it depicted a seacoast gun and palmetto leaves, symbolizing South Carolina and the opening of hostilities. Two cannons used at Fort Sumter were later presented to Louisiana State University by General William Tecumseh Sherman, who had served as the university's president before the war.[74][75][76]
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References
References
- "Civil War Centennial Issue", Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed March 16, 2014.
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