What were the Bishops' Wars?

The Bishops' Wars were two distinct conflicts fought between Scotland and England in 1639 and 1640. These wars were the initial phase of the broader Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which also encompassed the English Civil Wars and the Irish Confederate Wars. Scottish Royalists also aligned with England during these conflicts.

When did the Bishops' Wars take place?

The Bishops' Wars occurred between March 1639 and September 1640.

What larger series of conflicts were the Bishops' Wars a part of?

The Bishops' Wars were the first conflicts within the larger series known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. This broader conflict also included the First and Second English Civil Wars, the Irish Confederate Wars, and the Anglo-Scottish War from 1650 to 1652.

Who were the primary belligerents in the Bishops' Wars?

The primary belligerents were the Scottish Covenanters on one side, and the Kingdom of England, along with Scottish Royalists allied to England, on the other.

What was the outcome of the Bishops' Wars?

The Bishops' Wars concluded with a Covenanter victory, which led to a Covenanter government in Scotland and ultimately forced King Charles I to recall the English Parliament to secure funding.

What image is featured in the infobox, and what does it depict?

The infobox features an image titled The Signing of the National Covenant in Greyfriars Kirkyard by William Allan, painted in 1838. This artwork illustrates the historical event where Scots signed the National Covenant in 1638 to resist religious changes imposed by King Charles I.

What was the religious structure of the Church of Scotland (the Kirk) following the Reformation?

Following the Reformation in Scotland, the Church of Scotland, known as the Kirk, was structured as Presbyterian. This meant it was governed by elected presbyters (elders) rather than bishops.

How did the structure of the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) differ from Episcopalian churches in the 17th century?

In the 17th century, Presbyterian churches were governed by presbyters elected by ministers and elders, whereas Episcopalian churches were typically governed by bishops appointed by the monarch. This difference in governance was a key point of contention.

Why were disputes over bishops in Scotland as much political as religious?

The disputes over bishops were political because the appointment and authority of bishops were closely tied to the monarch's power. Royalists viewed the monarch as the head of both church and state, while Covenanters believed Christ was the head of the church, limiting royal authority to secular matters. Therefore, challenging the role of bishops was also a challenge to royal authority.

What was the general belief regarding monarchy among Scots, and where did they differ?

The vast majority of Scots, whether Covenanter or Royalist, believed in a divinely mandated, well-ordered monarchy. However, they differed significantly on what constituted well-ordered and who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs.

Who was James VI and I, and what was his vision for the Church of Scotland and England?

James VI and I, who became King of England in 1603, envisioned a unified Church of Scotland and England as a foundational step toward creating a centralized, Unionist state. He sought to align the religious structures of both kingdoms.

How did Charles I's religious reforms in the Church of England lead to suspicion?

Charles I's reforms to the Church of England were viewed by many in both Scotland and England as being too close to Catholic practices. This fueled existing fears of a Catholic revival, even though overt Catholicism was practiced by only a minority at the time.

What changes were introduced in Scotland in 1636 regarding church practice, and what was the reaction?

In 1636, a new Book of Canons was introduced, replacing John Knox's Book of Discipline and asserting the King's supremacy in church matters. This was followed in 1637 by a new Book of Common Prayer, which provoked widespread anger and rioting among many Scots who opposed these changes.

What was the role of Jenny Geddes in the protests against the new Prayer Book?

Jenny Geddes is famously associated with the riots against the new Prayer Book in St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. Legend holds that she threw a stool at the minister when he began to read from the new book, symbolizing the popular resistance to the imposed religious changes.

What was the National Covenant, and when was it signed?

The National Covenant was a document signed by many Scots in February 1638, pledging resistance to liturgical innovations and affirming their commitment to the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. It marked a significant step in organized opposition to Charles I's religious policies.

Which prominent Scottish figures backed the National Covenant?

The Marquess of Argyll and six other members of the Scottish Privy Council were among the prominent figures who supported the National Covenant.

What was the outcome of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in Glasgow in December 1638?

The General Assembly in Glasgow rejected the religious changes imposed by Charles I, expelled bishops from the Kirk, and asserted its right to meet annually. This effectively turned a religious dispute into a political struggle for supremacy.

Who advised Charles I that war was the only option after the Glasgow Assembly?

The Marquis of Hamilton, who was Charles I's chief advisor on Scottish affairs, advised the king that war was the only remaining option after the decisions made by the Glasgow General Assembly.

How did Charles I initially attempt to re-assert his authority in Scotland without recalling Parliament?

Charles I attempted to re-assert his authority by using his personal financial resources to fund a military campaign, thus avoiding the need to seek tax approval from Parliament.

Describe Charles I's multi-pronged military plan for the First Bishops' War.

Charles I's plan involved a large English army of 20,000 advancing on Edinburgh from the south, a 5,000-strong amphibious force under the Marquis of Hamilton landing on the east coast to link up with Scottish Royalists, and an Irish army under the Earl of Antrim invading western Scotland.

What Covenanter actions in March 1639 disrupted Charles I's invasion plans?

The Covenanters occupied Edinburgh Castle on March 21, 1639, and secured key landing sites on the west coast, such as Dumbarton Castle. These actions prevented the planned landings by Hamilton's amphibious force and the Earl of Antrim's Irish army.

What happened at the Trot of Turriff and the Brig of Dee?

The Trot of Turriff on May 13, 1639, was a minor Royalist victory and marked the first casualty of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Later, on June 19, 1639, the Covenanters under Montrose defeated Royalists led by Viscount Aboyne at the Battle of the Brig of Dee, which was the only significant engagement of the First Bishops' War.

How was the First Bishops' War perceived in England, and what nickname did it acquire?

The First Bishops' War was unpopular in England and was referred to by many in the English media and political class as King Charles's northern follies.

What methods did Charles I use to fund the war, and what was the public reaction?

Charles I funded the war through forced loans, impressments, and by requiring the civilian population to provide accommodation for his troops. This led to widespread anti-war sentiment and instances of soldiers attacking their own officers.

What were the characteristics of the English army assembled at Berwick-upon-Tweed?

The English army, numbering around 15,000, consisted largely of untrained conscripts from the northern militia, many armed only with bows and arrows. Charles I also attempted to recruit foreign mercenaries, drawing accusations of using Catholics against his own subjects.

Who was the commander of the Scottish army during the First Bishops' War, and what was his experience?

The Scottish army was led by Alexander Leslie, a veteran commander who had served with the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War. His army consisted of approximately 16,500 well-equipped men.

What led to the English army's retreat across the border without a fight?

When a small English cavalry force investigated reports of Scottish troops near Kelso, they feared they were outnumbered by the advancing Scottish units and retreated back across the border without engaging in battle. This retreat significantly lowered English morale.

What was the Pacification of Berwick, and what did it stipulate?

The Pacification of Berwick, signed on June 19, 1639, was an agreement that referred all disputed questions regarding church and state to either the General Assembly or the Scottish Parliament for resolution.

Was the Pacification of Berwick considered a final resolution by either side?

No, both the English and Scottish sides viewed the Pacification of Berwick as a temporary truce rather than a final resolution, and both continued preparations for future military conflict.

What significant acts did the Scottish Parliament pass during the interlude between the wars?

The Scottish Parliament passed several significant acts, including provisions for Tri-annual Parliaments (meaning they would meet every three years) and making the National Covenant compulsory for all holders of public office.

Why did Charles I recall the English Parliament in December 1639?

Charles I recalled the English Parliament because his advisors convinced him that it was the only way to finance a second war against Scotland, as he could not rely solely on his own resources.

What was the outcome of the English Short Parliament in April 1640?

The Short Parliament, led by John Pym, demanded that Charles I address grievances such as ship money before approving subsidies. After three weeks of deadlock, Charles dissolved Parliament, forcing him to rely on his own resources for the war.

What actions did the Covenanter leaders take in January 1640 regarding Aberdeen?

To secure their rear and consolidate their position, the Covenanter leaders mustered their regiments and occupied Aberdeen, which was the center of the Royalist influence in the north-east of Scotland.

What commission did the Scottish Parliament grant to the Marquess of Argyll in June 1640?

In June 1640, the Scottish Parliament granted the Marquess of Argyll a commission of fire and sword to use against Royalist areas in the Scottish Highlands, including Lochaber, Badenoch, and Rannoch.

How did the Covenanters secure their rear and prevent an Irish landing in the Second Bishops' War?

By seizing key strategic locations like Dumbarton Castle, the Covenanters prevented Strafford's Irish army from landing in Scotland, allowing them to concentrate their forces against the impending English invasion.

How did the Scottish army in the Second Bishops' War compare to the English army in terms of equipment and morale?

The Scottish army, led by Leslie, consisted of around 20,000 well-equipped men with superior artillery. In contrast, the English troops were largely poorly equipped militia from Southern England, unpaid, and unenthusiastic about the war, suffering from low morale.

What was the behavior of the English troops on their march north during the Second Bishops' War?

Due to a lack of supplies on their march north, the English troops resorted to looting the areas they passed through, causing widespread disorder. Several units also took matters into their own hands, murdering officers suspected of being Catholics and then deserting.

What occurred at the Battle of Newburn on August 28, 1640?

At the Battle of Newburn on August 28, 1640, the Scottish forces successfully forced a passage over the River Tyne. Although they still needed to take Newcastle, they found that the English commander, Conway, had already withdrawn to Durham.

Why did Conway withdraw to Durham, and what was the impact on the English army's morale?

One suggestion for Conway's withdrawal to Durham is that he did not trust his ill-disciplined and mutinous troops. Regardless of the exact reason, this retreat caused the morale of the rest of the English army to collapse, compelling Charles I to seek peace.

What was the other significant military action of the Second Bishops' War?

Besides the main campaign in northern England, the other significant action was the siege of Edinburgh Castle, which was held by the Royalist commander Sir Patrick Ruthven.

Who commanded Edinburgh Castle during its siege, and what was his background?

Edinburgh Castle was commanded by Sir Patrick Ruthven, a Royalist officer who had previously served with Alexander Leslie in the Swedish army. He surrendered the castle in September due to starvation after it had been blockaded since May.

What were the terms of the truce negotiated in October 1640?

Under the truce negotiated in October 1640, the Scottish army was paid 850 pounds sterling per day and allowed to occupy Northumberland and County Durham. This occupation was to continue until final peace terms could be agreed upon.

What was the belief regarding the secret agreement between the Parliamentary opposition and the Scots concerning the truce?

Many believed that the arrangement allowing the Scots to occupy northern England was secretly agreed upon by the English Parliamentary opposition and the Scots. This arrangement allowed Parliament to maintain pressure on the King by controlling the export of coal from Newcastle, while only Parliament could levy the taxes needed to pay the occupation costs.

What was the significance of the Long Parliament's actions in May 1641?

The Long Parliament, which assembled in November 1640, asserted its power by executing Thomas Wentworth, the 1st Earl of Strafford, in May 1641. This demonstrated the growing power of Parliament relative to the King.

What was the proximate cause of the First English Civil War?

While the defeat in the Bishops' Wars forced Charles to call a Parliament he couldn't dismiss, the proximate cause of the First English Civil War in August 1642 was the tension between Charles and Parliament over control of the army raised to suppress the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Neither side trusted the other with military command.

What was the long-term impact of the Solemn League and Covenant in 1643?

The Solemn League and Covenant, signed in 1643, was driven by Scottish concern that Parliament might be defeated by Charles. It aimed to establish a unified Presbyterian church in both Scotland and England, reflecting the Covenanters' desire for political power through religious uniformity.

Why did the Covenanters overestimate their military capacity and ability to enforce a Presbyterian church in England?

Their success in the Bishops' Wars led the Covenanters to overestimate their military strength and their ability to impose their religious and political objectives on England, where Presbyterianism was a minority view.

Who were the Independents, and why did they oppose the Covenanters' religious aims?

The Independents were a religious group who opposed any state-controlled church, including the Presbyterian model the Covenanters sought to establish in England. They believed in religious freedom for individual congregations.

What was Oliver Cromwell's stance on the Covenanters' religious objectives?

Oliver Cromwell was a prominent opponent of the Covenanters' religious aims. He stated that he would fight rather than agree to the establishment of a Presbyterian church dictated by the Scots, aligning himself with the Independent movement.

What was the outcome of the Second English Civil War?

The Second English Civil War resulted in the defeat of the Royalists and the execution of Charles I.

What followed the failed invasion of England by Charles II's son?

Following a failed invasion of England by Charles II's son, intended to restore the monarchy, Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth of England on English terms, after being defeated in the Anglo-Scottish war (1650-1652).

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Historical Context

Royal Authority vs. Scottish Kirk

The Bishops' Wars (1639–1640) were a series of conflicts stemming from King Charles I's attempts to impose religious uniformity across Scotland and England. Charles, inheriting the crowns of both kingdoms, sought to centralize power and reform the Church of Scotland, which had established a Presbyterian structure following the Reformation. His introduction of a new Book of Canons and a Book of Common Prayer in 1637 was perceived by many Scots as an unwelcome imposition of Anglican practices, bordering on Catholicism, and a direct challenge to the autonomy of the Kirk.^[b]^[3]

The National Covenant

This religious dispute rapidly escalated into a political confrontation. In 1638, a broad coalition of Scottish nobles, clergy, and commoners signed the National Covenant. This document pledged resistance to Charles's religious innovations and affirmed the rights of the Scottish Parliament and the Kirk. The Covenanters, as they became known, effectively challenged royal authority, transforming a religious grievance into a movement for political supremacy. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland subsequently expelled bishops, further solidifying the Covenanter government's opposition to the Crown.^[13]^[15]

Interconnected Kingdoms

The political landscape of the 17th century saw the three kingdoms of Scotland, England, and Ireland as interconnected entities under a single monarch. Charles I's policies in one kingdom often had repercussions in the others. Fears of a Catholic revival, fueled by Charles's perceived High Church leanings and alliances with Catholic powers, were widespread. Scotland's strong ties with Protestant nations like the Dutch Republic and its history of religious dissent made it particularly sensitive to perceived royal overreach.^[6]^[7] The resulting tensions destabilized all three realms, setting the stage for wider conflict.^[29]

The Wars Unfold

First Bishops' War (1639)

Charles I, seeking to avoid parliamentary approval for war taxes, attempted to fund the conflict using his own resources. His strategy involved a multi-pronged invasion of Scotland: an English army advancing from the south, an amphibious force led by the Marquis of Hamilton, and an Irish contingent. However, this complex plan faltered due to Covenanter preparedness, including the seizure of Edinburgh Castle and key coastal defenses. Minor skirmishes occurred, notably the Battle of the Brig of Dee, but the main English army and the Scottish Covenanters faced each other near Berwick-upon-Tweed without engaging in a decisive battle. The conflict concluded with the Pacification of Berwick, a treaty that deferred contentious issues to future Scottish assemblies and Parliament.^[16]^[21]

Key locations of the First Bishops' War, 1639.

Second Bishops' War (1640)

Following the unsatisfactory peace of Berwick, both sides prepared for renewed hostilities. The Scottish Parliament ratified Covenanter gains, while Charles I recalled the English Parliament, which proved uncooperative. In the Second Bishops' War, the Covenanters, under the experienced command of Alexander Leslie, launched a successful invasion of northern England. They secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Newburn, forcing the English army under Lord Conway to retreat. This allowed the Scots to occupy Northumberland and County Durham, strategically controlling the vital coal trade to London and gaining significant leverage.^[31]^[33]

The Newburn campaign, 1640.

Key Statistics

The conflicts involved substantial military forces, though casualties were relatively low compared to later wars.

Belligerent	Strength	Casualties
Scottish Covenanters	20,000	300–600
Scottish Royalists / England	20,000–25,000	300–400

Commanders and Figures

Covenanter Leadership

Key figures on the Covenanter side included:

👤 Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven: A veteran soldier who commanded the Covenanter armies.
👤 Marquess of Argyll: A prominent political leader of the Covenanter movement.
👤 Marquess of Montrose: Initially a Covenanter, later shifted allegiance.

These leaders mobilized a determined and well-organized force that proved superior to the royal armies.^[a]

Royalist and English Command

The Royalist and English forces were led by:

👑 Charles I: King of Scotland and England, the ultimate authority behind the policies.
👤 Marquess of Hamilton: Charles's chief advisor on Scottish affairs and commander of the amphibious force.
👤 Earl of Strafford: Lord Deputy of Ireland and a key organizer of royal forces.
👤 Viscount Aboyne: A commander in the Royalist north-east Scottish forces.
👤 Lord Conway: English commander in the north during the First Bishops' War.

Many English commanders were inexperienced, and the troops suffered from poor morale and discipline.^[26]

Consequences and Legacy

Treaty of London and its Impact

The Second Bishops' War concluded with the Treaty of Ripon, which allowed Scottish forces to occupy parts of northern England pending a final settlement. This arrangement necessitated Charles I recalling the English Parliament to raise funds. The subsequent Long Parliament, convened in November 1640, proved far more assertive than Charles had anticipated. It demanded accountability for perceived abuses of royal power, such as the use of ship money, and ultimately led to the impeachment and execution of Strafford.^[36]

Prelude to Civil War

While the Treaty of London in August 1641 formally ended the Bishops' Wars, the underlying political and religious tensions remained unresolved. The Scottish Covenanters had secured significant concessions, confirming their control over the Kirk and Parliament. However, the subsequent Irish Rebellion of 1641 created a crisis of confidence between Charles and Parliament regarding the control of military forces. This mutual distrust became the proximate cause of the First English Civil War, which erupted in August 1642, drawing Scotland into the wider Wars of the Three Kingdoms.^[37]

Scholarly Sources

Primary and Secondary Works

The understanding of the Bishops' Wars is built upon a foundation of historical scholarship, including contemporary accounts and modern analyses. Key works provide detailed insights into the military campaigns, political maneuvering, and religious motivations that defined this critical period.

Bannerman, James (1868b). The church of Christ: a treatise on the nature, powers, ordinances, discipline, and government of the Christian church. Vol. 2.
Caldwell, David (2019). Edinburgh Castle Under Siege, 1639–1745.
Cressy, David (2015). "The Blindness of Charles I". Huntington Library Quarterly. 78 (4): 637–656.
Fissel, Mark (1994). The Bishops' Wars: Charles I's Campaigns against Scotland, 1638–1640.
Gericke, Bradley T (2001). Civil Wars in Britain; 1640–1646 (PhD).
Harris, Tim (2014). Rebellion: Britain's First Stuart Kings, 1567–1642.
Kaplan, Lawrence (1979). "Charles I's Flight to the Scots". Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 11 (3): 207–223.
Kishlansky, Mark (2005). "Charles I: A Case of Mistaken Identity". Past and Present (189): 41–80.
Mackie, JD; Lenman, Bruce; Parker, Geoffrey (1986). A History of Scotland.
McDonald, Alan (1998). The Jacobean Kirk, 1567–1625: Sovereignty, Polity and Liturgy.
Melville, James (2015) [1842]. The Autobiography and Diary of Mr. James Melville, with a Continuation of the Diary.
Pearce, Dominic (2015). Henrietta Maria.
Plant, David. "Scottish National Covenant". BCW Project.
Rees, John (2016). The Leveller Revolution.
Royle, Trevor (2006) [2004]. Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638–1660.
Stephen, Jeffrey (2010). "Scottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism". Journal of British Studies. 49 (1, Scottish Special).
Stevenson, David (2003) [1973]. Scottish Revolution, 1637–44: Triumph of the Covenanters.
Thomson, Oliver (2018). Zealots; How a group of Scottish conspirators unleashed half a century of war in Britain.
Waureghen, Sarah (2009). "Covenanter Propaganda and Conceptualizations of the Public during the Bishops Wars, 1638–1640". The Historical Journal. 52 (1): 63–86.
Wilson, Peter (2012) [2009]. The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy.
Woolrych, Austin (2009). Britain in revolution: 1625–1660.

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References

Leslie was ennobled as 1st Earl of Leven and Hamilton promoted to a Duke after hostilities had ended. Strafford was made an Earl between the 1st and 2nd Bishops' Wars

Bannerman 1868b, pp. 260â295.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Bishops' Wars Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This document has been generated by an AI, synthesizing information from historical sources to provide an academic overview. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the provided source material, it is intended for educational purposes only.

This is not professional historical advice. The content presented here is based on a snapshot of data and may not encompass all nuances or interpretations of the Bishops' Wars. Readers are encouraged to consult primary sources and scholarly works for comprehensive understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Bishops' Wars: A Crucible of Conflict

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Context 📜

👑 Royal Authority vs. Scottish Kirk

🤝 The National Covenant

🌍 Interconnected Kingdoms

The Wars Unfold ⚔️

🛡️ First Bishops' War (1639)

🔥 Second Bishops' War (1640)

📊 Key Statistics

Commanders and Figures 👑

🏴󠁧󠁢󠁳󠁣󠁴󠁿 Covenanter Leadership

🇬🇧 Royalist and English Command

Consequences and Legacy ➡️

📜 Treaty of London and its Impact

💥 Prelude to Civil War

Scholarly Sources 📚

📖 Primary and Secondary Works

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Context

Royal Authority vs. Scottish Kirk

The National Covenant

Interconnected Kingdoms

The Wars Unfold

First Bishops' War (1639)

Second Bishops' War (1640)

Key Statistics

Commanders and Figures

Covenanter Leadership

Royalist and English Command

Consequences and Legacy

Treaty of London and its Impact

Prelude to Civil War

Scholarly Sources

Primary and Secondary Works

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice