What is the primary definition of Bukharan Jews, and where did they traditionally reside?

Bukharan Jews, also known as Bukharian Jews, are a Mizrahi Jewish subgroup from Central Asia. Historically, they lived predominantly in areas that are now Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. The name 'Bukharan' originates from the Emirate of Bukhara, a historical polity in the region that once had a significant Jewish population.

What is the estimated total population of Bukharan Jews, and which countries host their largest communities?

The estimated total population of Bukharan Jews ranges from 300,000 to 350,000. The largest communities reside in Israel, with approximately 160,000 individuals, and the United States, particularly the New York metropolitan area (primarily Queens), with an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 people.

What languages are traditionally spoken by Bukharan Jews, and how has this evolved over time?

Traditionally, Bukharan Jews spoke Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik), a Judeo-Persian language similar to Tajiki and Dari, incorporating elements of Hebrew and Aramaic. In modern times, especially after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russian has become a secondary language for many, while English is prevalent in North America and the United Kingdom, and Hebrew in Israel. Some also speak Uzbek in Uzbekistan.

What is the religious affiliation of Bukharan Jews, and what other ethnic groups are they related to?

The religion of Bukharan Jews is Judaism. They are considered related to other ethnic Jewish groups such as Iranian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Afghan Jews, Mountain Jews, Kurdish Jews, Georgian Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and Soviet Jews.

What was the original name the Bukharan Jewish community used to refer to themselves?

The Bukharan Jewish community originally referred to themselves as Bnei Israel, which translates to 'Children of Israel,' a common self-designation among Jewish communities.

How did the term 'Bukharan' come to be associated with this Jewish community?

The term 'Bukharan' was coined by European travelers in Central Asia around the 16th century. At that time, the Jewish community lived across several khanates, including Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand, but the name 'Bukharan' likely stuck because the Bukharan Emirate was the largest of these polities.

What were the local terms used by the general populace to refer to Bukharan Jews, and what was their connotation?

The local populace referred to Bukharan Jews as 'Yahudi' or 'Juhood.' The latter term, 'Juhood,' was considered a pejorative, indicating a derogatory usage.

How did the linguistic landscape of Jews in Central Asia change from the Achaemenid Empire to the 19th century?

During the Achaemenid Empire, Jews in the region spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Persian, with Persian eventually becoming the dominant language for Jews in Central Asia and Iran. By the 19th century, Bukharan Jews had developed their Judeo-Persian language, which they called 'Bukharian' or 'Bukhori,' a dialect similar to Tajiki and Dari, enriched with Hebrew and Aramaic elements for internal communication.

What impact did the Russification policies of the Soviet Union have on the language and cultural life of Bukharan Jews?

The Russification policies of the Soviet Union aimed to establish Russian as the lingua franca and halted the dissemination of religious information, significantly impacting the cultural and educational life of Bukharan Jews. This led to a decline in the widespread use of Bukharian and Hebrew, as Russian became a primary language, though some younger generations still understand or speak Bukhori.

What is the legendary origin story of Bukharan Jews, and how does modern scholarship view it?

According to legend, Bukharan Jews are exiles from the tribes of Naphtali and Issachar during the Assyrian captivity, based on a reading of 'Habor' in II Kings 17:6 as a reference to Bukhara. However, modern scholarship associates this narrative with European myths about the 'Ten Lost Tribes,' suggesting it is not historically accurate.

When do historians trace the establishment of Bukharan Jews in Central Asia, and what was their cultural connection during this period?

Historians trace the establishment of Bukharan Jews in Central Asia to the period following Cyrus the Great's conquest of Babylonia, when the region became part of the Persian Empire. While Cyrus allowed Jews to return to Judah, many chose to remain and dispersed throughout the Persian Empire. By the 8th to 9th centuries, they were present in cities like Balkh, Khwarezm, and Merv, forming a culturally and religiously cohesive group with Jews in Iran and Afghanistan until approximately the 16th century.

What early written evidence supports the presence of Jewish communities in Central Asia?

The earliest primary written account of Jews in Central Asia dates to the early 4th century CE, recalled in the Talmud by Rabbi Shmuel bar Bisna, who traveled to Margiana (present-day Merv in Turkmenistan). Further evidence comes from Jewish writings on ossuaries from the 5th and 6th centuries, discovered in Merv between 1954 and 1956.

What did Benjamin of Tudela report about the Jewish community in Samarkand during the 12th century?

In the 12th century, Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela documented a large Jewish community in Samarkand, claiming there were approximately 50,000 'Israelites' in the city, many of whom were described as 'very wise and rich men.'

How did Jewish weavers and dyers contribute to the Timurid Empire under Tamerlane?

In the 14th century, under Tamerlane's rule in the Timurid Empire, Jewish weavers and dyers played a significant role in rebuilding Central Asia after the Mongol invasions. In the centuries that followed, Jews became dominant in the region's textile and dye industries.

What caused the splintering of Judeo-Persian communities into separate groups like Bukharan Jews and Afghan Jews?

The Judeo-Persian communities splintered due to political and religious shifts. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty's adoption of Shia Islam in Iran, contrasting with Central Asia's Sunni allegiance, severed ties between Iranian and Central Asian Jews, leading to the formation of the 'Bukharan Jews' identity. Later, in the mid-18th century, hostile relations between the Durrani dynasty in Afghanistan and the Manghud dynasty in the Emirate of Bukhara similarly split the Afghan and Bukharan Jewish communities.

What factors led to migrations of Jews between Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan over the centuries?

Jews frequently migrated between Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan to escape political turmoil, persecution, or to seek economic opportunities. Notable instances include persecution under the Safavid dynasty in the mid-17th century, forced conversion to Islam in Afghan cities in the mid-19th century, and the Russian conquest of Central Asia which offered greater freedoms. However, living conditions deteriorated under Soviet rule in the 1930s, prompting migration to Iran or Afghanistan.

Describe the discriminatory practices Bukharan Jews faced under Sunni Muslim rule in the Khanate of Bukhara.

Under Sunni Muslim rule in the Khanate of Bukhara, Bukharan Jews were subjected to Dhimmi status, which included discriminatory practices. They were forced to wear identifying clothing like a yellow patch and a specific hat called a Tilpak, while leather belts were reserved for Muslims. Their homes had to be marked with a dirty cloth and be lower than Muslim residences. Jewish testimony was inadmissible in court cases involving Muslims, they were forbidden to ride horses and donkeys, and Jewish men were ritually slapped in the face when paying their annual Jizya tax.

Despite discrimination, how did Bukharan Jews achieve financial success under Sunni Muslim rule?

Despite facing numerous prohibitions and humiliations under Sunni Muslim rule, Bukharan Jews managed to achieve financial success primarily as merchants, establishing lucrative trade businesses that allowed them to prosper economically.

What significant event occurred in the 18th century regarding the Jewish population in Bukhara, and what was the term for those who forcibly converted?

During the 18th century, Bukharan Jews faced severe discrimination and persecution, leading to the closure of Jewish centers and the forced conversion of over one-third of the Jewish population to Islam under threat of torture and execution. Those who forcibly converted were known as 'Chalas,' a term meaning 'neither this nor that,' reflecting their ambiguous status.

Who was Rabbi Yosef Maimon, and what impact did he have on Bukharan Jewish religious traditions?

Rabbi Yosef Maimon was a Sephardic kabbalist from Tetuan, Morocco, who traveled to Bukhara in 1793. He chose to stay to strengthen Judaism among the local Jewish population, who he believed were in disarray. Maimon staunchly advocated for the adoption of Sephardic traditions, leading to a split in the community and the eventual forceful switch from Persian religious traditions to Sephardic customs for Bukharan Jewry.

How did Rabbi Shimon Hakham continue his great-grandfather's work and contribute to Bukharan Jewish education?

Rabbi Shimon Hakham, great-grandson of Rabbi Yosef Maimon, continued his great-grandfather's work by opening the Talmid Hakham yeshiva in Bukhara in 1870, promoting religious law. Recognizing that many Bukharan Jews, despite studying Torah, were not fluent in Hebrew and had limited access to religious texts in Persian, he undertook the crucial task of translating religious books into Bukhori. Since printing facilities were unavailable in Bukhara, he traveled to Jerusalem to publish his translations, making religious knowledge more accessible to his community.

How did Tsarist Russia's rule differ for Bukharan Jews compared to Jews in Eastern Europe?

Unlike the Jews of Eastern Europe, Bukharan Jews experienced largely favorable treatment under Tsarist Russia. This was due to existing trade relations and the perception of Bukharan Jews as potential allies and interpreters with local authorities in the Russian Turkestan region.

What was the period from 1876 to 1916 known as for Bukharan Jews, and what opportunities did it bring?

The period from 1876 to 1916 was known as the 'Golden Age' for Bukharan Jews. During this time, they gained equal rights with their Muslim neighbors, were no longer restricted in their autonomy, and many prospered, holding prestigious jobs in medicine, law, and government. Many also became successful and respected actors, artists, dancers, musicians, singers, film producers, and sportsmen, earning titles like 'People's Artist of Uzbekistan' or 'People's Artist of the Soviet Union.'

What motivated Bukharan Jews to immigrate to Ottoman Palestine starting in 1872, and what did they establish there?

Beginning in 1872, Bukharan Jews were motivated by religious convictions and a desire to return to their ancestral homeland to immigrate to Ottoman Palestine. In Jerusalem, they established the Bukharan Quarter (Sh'hunat HaBucharim), a neighborhood designed in the style of major European cities with wide streets and spacious mansions.

Describe the architectural characteristics of the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem.

The Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem was designed with streets three times wider than other major thoroughfares in the city at the time. Its spacious mansions featured neo-Gothic windows, European tiled roofs, neo-Moorish arches, and Italian marble. The facades were adorned with Jewish motifs, such as the Star of David, and Hebrew inscriptions, reflecting a blend of European and Jewish aesthetic influences.

Who were some of the key figures involved in organizing the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem?

Rabbi Shimon Hakham and Rabbi Shlomo Moussaieff were among the prominent organizers of the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem, where homes, synagogues, schools, libraries, and a bathhouse were established for the community.

What led to the decline of the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem after World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution?

Following World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution, the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem experienced a decline because its primary sources of income from foreign trade in cotton, gemstones, and tea from Central Asia were cut off. This economic hardship forced many residents to subdivide and rent out rooms in their once-affluent mansions to generate income, transforming the neighborhood from one of the city's most beautiful to one of its poorest.

How was the Bukharan Quarter revitalized, and what role did Rabbi Bernard M. Casper play?

The Bukharan Quarter underwent revitalization efforts, with Rabbi Bernard M. Casper, then Dean for Student Affairs at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, becoming deeply concerned about its impoverished state between 1953 and 1963. After becoming Chief Rabbi in South Africa, he established a special fund for the Quarter's improvement, which was linked to Prime Minister Menachem Begin's Project Renewal. Casper's initiative, including pilot projects like a free loan fund, a dental clinic, and a hearing center, spurred the municipality to resume its development efforts.

What was the impact of the Soviet capture of Bukhara and the creation of Soviet Socialist Republics on Bukharan Jews?

The Soviet capture of Bukhara and the subsequent creation of the Soviet Socialist Republics of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan led to the destruction or closure of synagogues, which were replaced by Soviet institutions. This resulted in many Bukharan Jews fleeing to the West and a drastic deterioration of living conditions, especially after Stalin's First Five-Year Plan.

How did Soviet policies affect the cultural and national identity of Bukharan Jews?

Soviet doctrines, ideology, and nationalities policy significantly impacted the everyday life, culture, and identity of Bukharan Jews. Those who tried to create a Bukharan Jewish Soviet culture were charged during Stalin's Great Purge, or were forced to assimilate into larger Soviet Uzbek or Soviet Tajik national identities as part of nation-building campaigns. Despite this, the community still tried to preserve its traditions while demonstrating loyalty to the new government.

What characterized the 'Black Years of Soviet Jewry' for Bukharan Jews?

The 'Black Years of Soviet Jewry' began in 1950 with the renewed suppression of Jewish religion after World War II. Following Joseph Stalin's failed attempt to turn Israel into a socialist country, an anti-Israel, anti-Zionist, and antisemitic campaign was launched against Soviet Jews. Many religious and prominent Bukharan Jews were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on charges of 'Zionist propagation,' with even the traditional Passover phrase 'Next Year in Jerusalem' leading to arrests, all under the guise of an anti-cosmopolitan campaign.

How did the creation of Israel and the Six-Day War impact antisemitism and emigration for Bukharan Jews in the Soviet Union?

The creation of the state of Israel in 1948 and the Six-Day Arab-Israeli War of 1967 intensified antisemitism among the Muslim majority in Central Asia, while also leading to a rise in Jewish patriotism. Although the Soviet Union initially forbade Aliyah (emigration to Israel), these restrictions gradually loosened in the 1970s and ceased entirely in the 1980s, allowing many to leave.

What was the relationship between Bukharan Jews and Ashkenazi Jews in Central Asia, particularly during World War II?

During World War II, when tens of thousands of Ashkenazi Jews from European regions of the Soviet Union sought refuge in Central Asia, Bukharan Jewish communities provided assistance, housing families and helping them find jobs. Despite this aid, the two groups largely remained separate, with intermarriage being rare. Bukharan Jews were generally more religious and clustered together, while many Ashkenazi Jews were secular and assimilated into the general populace, leading some Bukharan Jews to view Ashkenazi Jews as inauthentic due to their perceived lack of Jewish identity. Both groups were even buried in separate cemeteries.

What was the nature of the relationship between Bukharan Jewry and Chabad-Lubavitch?

Bukharan Jewry maintained good relations with the Chabad-Lubavitch movement, starting in the late 19th century with the arrival of Rabbi Shlomo Leib Eliezrov, a student of Rabbi Sholom Dovber Schneersohn. Rabbi Eliezrov took a temporary rabbinical position in Uzbekistan and helped organize the provision of kosher meat in Jewish communities. Over the decades, other Chabad emissaries continued to support the Bukharan Jewish community.

What factors contributed to the mass migration of Bukharan Jews after 1991?

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the establishment of independent republics in Central Asia in the late 1980s and 1990s, most remaining Bukharan Jews emigrated. Reasons for this mass migration included economic instability, fears of growing nationalistic policies, and the resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism, exemplified by events like the Fergana massacre and the 1990 Dushanbe riots. Many also reported being told by Uzbek and Tajik locals to 'Go back to where you came from,' and faced difficulties selling their homes at fair prices.

What happened to the Dushanbe Synagogue in Tajikistan in the early 2000s?

In early 2006, the Dushanbe Synagogue in Tajikistan, along with its mikveh, kosher butcher, and Jewish schools, was demolished by the government without compensation to the community, to make way for the new Palace of Nations. After international protest, the government initially promised to rebuild it on the same site, but by mid-2008, the entire synagogue was destroyed. A new synagogue was eventually reestablished in a different location for the small Jewish community in 2009.

What is the current status of the Jewish population in Tajikistan?

As of the 2010 census, there were only 36 Jews remaining in Tajikistan, with two identified as Bukharan Jews and the rest as Ashkenazi. The last known Jew in the city of Khujand, Jura Abaev, died on January 15, 2021, indicating a significant decline in the community.

How are Jews who lived in Afghanistan sometimes identified in relation to Bukharan Jews?

Jews who lived in Afghanistan are sometimes considered to be the same as Bukharan Jews, given Afghanistan's geographical location between Central and South Asia. However, some Jews from Afghanistan prefer to identify solely as 'Afghan Jews,' highlighting a distinct identity within the broader Jewish diaspora.

What 'ghetto rules' were reportedly imposed on Afghan Jews in 1935?

In 1935, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported that 'ghetto rules' were imposed on Afghan Jews. These rules mandated specific clothing, prohibited Jewish women from entering markets, required all Jews to live within certain distances from mosques, and banned Jews from riding horses, reflecting severe discrimination.

Who was Zablon Simintov, and what is his significance in the history of Jews in Afghanistan?

Zablon Simintov was widely regarded as the last remaining Jew in Afghanistan. He ran a store selling carpets and jewelry and lived in the dilapidated Kabul synagogue. In 2021, Simintov evacuated to Israel amidst the Taliban takeover, marking the official end of the Jewish presence in Afghanistan.

Where is the largest population of Bukharan Jews in the United States, and what cultural landmarks have they established?

The largest population of Bukharan Jews in the United States resides in New York City, particularly in Forest Hills, Queens. This area features 'Bukharan Broadway,' a stretch of 108th Street known for its Bukharan restaurants and gift shops, and the neighborhood is sometimes nicknamed 'Bukharlem' due to the significant Bukharan presence. They have also taken over existing synagogues, such as Congregation Tifereth Israel in Corona, Queens.

What is the traditional dress code of Bukharan Jews, and when is it typically worn today?

Bukharan Jews have a distinct traditional dress code, which historically included the kaftan (Jomah) as daily attire, similar to other Central Asian cultures. Today, the kaftan is primarily worn during significant communal events such as weddings and Bar Mitzvahs. They also have a unique, full head-sized kippah with rich patterns and lively colors, which is sometimes worn by liberal-leaning and Reform Jews.

What is the unique musical tradition of Bukharan Jews, and what are its characteristics?

The unique musical tradition of Bukharan Jews is called shashmaqam. It is characterized by an ensemble of stringed instruments, infused with Central Asian rhythms, and notable influences from klezmer music and Muslim melodies, as well as Spanish chords. The main instrument used is the dayereh. Shashmaqam music reflects a blend of Hassidic vocals, Indian and Islamic instrumentals, and Sufi-inspired texts and lyrical melodies, and Bukharan Jews were instrumental in preserving and transmitting this music, especially during the Soviet era.

What was Henry Lansdell's observation about Bukharan Jewish music in Samarkand in 1885?

In 1885, explorer Henry Lansdell visited Samarkand and described the singing of Bukharan Jews as 'the most remarkable' he had ever heard. He noted that the lead singer would begin in a very high key, straining to produce sound, then slowly prolong notes with numerous flourishes, screaming loudly in falsetto, while a second voice provided accompaniment. Lansdell found it to be 'anything but good music' and observed that the congregation was crowding around without the appearance of being engaged in divine worship.

Describe the engagement ceremony (Shirini-Khori) in Bukharan Jewish wedding traditions.

In Bukharan Jewish wedding traditions, the engagement ceremony, known as Shirini-Khori, takes place at the bride's home once a match is accepted. During this event, the Rabbi congratulates the bride's father and distributes sugar to those present. Other sweets are then shared with relatives to announce the engagement, symbolizing the sweetness and joy of the upcoming union.

What is the Kosh-Chinon ceremony, and what is its cultural significance in Bukharan Jewish weddings?

The Kosh-Chinon ceremony is a unique local custom practiced by both Jews and Muslims in Central Asia, performed a few days before a Bukharan Jewish wedding, after the bride has immersed herself in the Mikveh. During this ceremony, all female guests pluck the bride's eyebrows and the strands of hair above her lip, and clean the sides of her face of dark wisps. This practice signifies the bride's transition to womanhood, as girls in Central Asia were traditionally taught not to manicure their facial hair until marriage.

What are some of the unique aspects of the Chuppah ceremony in a Bukharan Jewish wedding?

While following standard Jewish wedding traditions, the Chuppah ceremony in a Bukharan Jewish wedding has a few distinct differences. Instead of being hung on four poles, the Chuppah is typically a prayer shawl held by family members. Additionally, as the bride and groom take their positions under the prayer shawl, their mothers stitch needles through the fabric of their children's clothing, a symbolic gesture.

How does Bukharan Jewish cuisine reflect their identity and dietary laws?

Bukharan Jewish cuisine is rooted in traditional Central Asian cooking, but it strictly adheres to Kashrut (Jewish dietary laws), which has preserved their Jewish identity in the kitchen. As one owner of a Bukharan restaurant noted, since they couldn't eat in non-kosher establishments, they learned to cook for their own community. This has led to unique Bukharan Jewish dishes like bakhsh and osh savo.

Name and describe three authentic Bukharan Jewish dishes.

Three authentic Bukharan Jewish dishes include: 1. *Osh palov*: A Bukharan Jewish version of pilaf, prepared for weekdays, which uniquely incorporates both beef and chicken. 2. *Bakhsh*: Known as 'green palov,' this rice dish features meat or chicken and green herbs like coriander, parsley, and dill. It comes in two varieties: *bakhshi khaltagi*, cooked Jewish-style in a small bag immersed in boiling water or soup, and *bakhshi degi*, cooked like regular pilaf in a cauldron. *Bakhshi khaltagi* is often served on Shabbat because it is precooked. 3. *Oshi sabo* (also *osh savo* or *osovoh*): A 'meal in a pot' that is slowly cooked overnight and traditionally eaten hot for Shabbat lunch. It is made with meat, rice, vegetables, and fruit, which gives it a distinctive sweet and sour flavor, serving a similar culinary function to cholent or hamin in other Jewish traditions.

What is 'Boyjon' in Bukharan Jewish cuisine, and when is it traditionally served?

Boyjon is an eggplant puree mixed only with salt and garlic, and it serves as the traditional starter for the Friday night meal in Bukharan Jewish homes. This simple yet flavorful dish marks the beginning of the Shabbat dinner.

What are 'Samsa' and 'Noni Toki' in Bukharan Jewish culinary traditions?

Samsa are pastries filled with spiced meat or vegetables, traditionally baked in a unique, hollowed-out tandoor oven, resembling Indian samosas in preparation and shape. Noni Toki is a crispy flatbread baked on the back of a wok, resulting in a distinctive bowl-shaped bread.

Echoes of Bukhara

A scholarly exploration of Central Asia's enduring Jewish heritage, tracing ancient roots, vibrant traditions, and global migrations.

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What Are Bukharan Jews?

A Central Asian Jewish Subgroup

The Bukharan Jews, also known as Bukharian Jews, represent a distinct Mizrahi Jewish subgroup historically residing in Central Asia. Their traditional homelands encompass regions now part of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. The appellation "Bukharan" is derived from the Emirate of Bukhara, a significant polity in the region that once hosted a substantial Jewish population.

Ancient Roots and Enduring Identity

This community is recognized as one of the most ancient Jewish diaspora groups, with their presence in the region tracing back to the Babylonian exile. They constitute a unique branch of Persian-speaking Jewry and are considered among the oldest ethnoreligious groups indigenous to Central Asia. Historically, they referred to themselves as "Bnei Israel," while local populations used terms like "Yahudi" or the pejorative "Juhood."

Modern Diaspora and Global Presence

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a significant demographic shift occurred. The majority of Bukharan Jews embarked on a mass emigration, primarily relocating to Israel, the United States, Canada, various European nations, and Australia. This migration has led to the establishment of vibrant Bukharan Jewish communities across the globe, preserving their heritage in new lands.

The Bukhori Language

Linguistic Heritage

Historically, Jews within the Achaemenid Empire, including those who would become Bukharan Jews, spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Persian. Over time, Persian emerged as the dominant language for Jews across Central Asia and Iran. Those educated in Jewish `cheders` maintained fluency in Hebrew, a practice that persisted until the early 20th century.

Bukhori: A Unique Dialect

By the 19th century, the Judeo-Persian dialect spoken by Bukharan Jews was formally named "Bukharian" or "Bukhori." This dialect shares significant similarities with the Tajiki and Dari dialects of Farsi, yet it is enriched with distinctive linguistic elements derived from Hebrew and Aramaic, facilitating internal community communication. Bukhori, alongside Hebrew, served as the cornerstone of their cultural and educational life.

Soviet Influence and Modern Usage

The Soviet era brought about a period of "Russification" in Central Asia, which significantly impacted the use of Bukhori. The dissemination of religious information was curtailed, and Russian was promoted as the region's lingua franca. Consequently, during the Soviet period, Bukharan Jews primarily spoke Bukhori and Russian, with some also learning Uzbek depending on their locale. Today, younger generations born outside Central Asia or who emigrated as children predominantly use Russian as their secondary language, though some retain an understanding or speaking ability in Bukhori.

A Journey Through Time

Ancient Origins and Early Settlements

While popular legends link Bukharan Jews to the Assyrian captivity, modern scholarship views these as European myths. Historians trace their definitive establishment in Central Asia to the period following Cyrus the Great's conquest of Babylonia, when the region became part of the Persian Empire. By the 8th to 9th centuries, Jewish communities were firmly established in cities such as Balkh, Khwarezm, and Merv. Early written accounts, including a 4th-century CE Talmudic record by Rabbi Shmuel bar Bisna and 5th-6th century Jewish writings on ossuaries in Merv, confirm their ancient presence.

Under Various Dynasties

The 12th century saw a thriving Jewish community in Samarkand, with traveler Benjamin of Tudela noting approximately 50,000 "Israelites." During the 14th-century Timurid Empire, Jewish weavers and dyers played a crucial role in Central Asia's reconstruction after the Mongol invasions, eventually dominating the region's textile and dye industries. The 16th century marked a significant splintering of Judeo-Persian communities when the Safavid dynasty's adoption of Shia Islam in Iran created hostile relations with Sunni Central Asia, leading to the distinct cultural identity of "Bukharan Jews." A similar division occurred with Afghan Jews in the mid-18th century due to dynastic conflicts.

Periods of Oppression and Resilience

Under Sunni Muslim rule in the Khanate of Bukhara, Bukharan Jews endured "Dhimmi" status, facing discriminatory practices such as mandatory identifying clothing (yellow patches, specific hats), marked homes, and legal disadvantages. Despite these humiliations, they achieved considerable financial success as merchants. The 18th century brought intensified persecution, forced conversions (leading to the term "Chalas" for those who converted), and even executions. By the mid-18th century, most lived within the Bukharan Emirate, described by Arminius Vambery in the 1860s as living in "utmost oppression."

The Golden Age Under Imperial Russia

The Russian conquest of Tashkent in 1865 ushered in a "Golden Age" for Bukharan Jews. Unlike their Eastern European counterparts, Tsarist Russia viewed them favorably due to long-standing trade relations, seeing them as potential allies and interpreters. From 1876 to 1916, they enjoyed equal rights with their Muslim neighbors, leading to prosperity and significant representation in medicine, law, government, arts, and sports. Many became celebrated artists and athletes, earning prestigious titles.

Return to Zion: The Bukharan Quarter

Motivated by religious conviction, Bukharan Jews began migrating to Ottoman Palestine in 1872. They established the "Bukharan Quarter" (Sh'hunat HaBucharim) in Jerusalem, which still stands today. In 1890, the Hovevei Zion Association was formed, leading to the development of a grand neighborhood designed by Conrad Schick, featuring wide streets, spacious mansions with European and Neo-Moorish architectural elements, and Jewish motifs. Initially affluent due to Central Asian trade, the quarter declined after World War I and the Bolshevik Revolution cut off income sources. Later, efforts by Rabbi Bernard M. Casper and Prime Minister Menachem Begin's Project Renewal helped revitalize the area, which is now predominantly inhabited by Haredi Jews.

Soviet Era Challenges

The Soviet capture of Bukhara in 1920 led to the destruction or closure of synagogues and the imposition of anti-religious policies. Stalin's First Five-Year Plan in the late 1920s drastically worsened living conditions, prompting thousands to flee to Iran, Afghanistan, and Mandatory Palestine. Soviet policies aimed at forced assimilation into broader Soviet national identities, yet the community strove to preserve traditions. The "Black Years of Soviet Jewry" began in 1950, marked by anti-Israel, anti-Zionist, and antisemitic campaigns, leading to arrests for "Zionist propagation." Antisemitism intensified after the 1948 and 1967 Arab-Israeli wars, though restrictions on emigration to Israel gradually eased in the 1970s and ceased in the 1980s.

Inter-Jewish Relations

During World War II, Bukharan Jewish communities in Soviet Uzbekistan provided crucial assistance to tens of thousands of Ashkenazi Jewish refugees. Despite this aid, the two groups largely remained separate, with intermarriage being rare. Bukharan Jews, often religious and traditional, clustered together, while many Ashkenazi Jews in Central Asia were secular and assimilated. Some Bukharan Jews even viewed Ashkenazi Jews as "inauthentic" due to their perceived lack of Jewish identity, leading to separate cemeteries. However, Bukharan Jewry maintained strong ties with Chabad-Lubavitch emissaries since the late 19th century. They also absorbed other Mizrahi Jews from Iraq and Yemen via the Silk Road, and some possess Sephardic ancestry from migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Global Communities

Tajikistan's Diminishing Presence

In Tajikistan, the Bukharan Jewish community has faced significant challenges. In 2006, the Dushanbe Synagogue, the city's only synagogue, along with its mikveh, kosher butcher, and Jewish schools, were controversially demolished by the government for the construction of the Palace of Nations. Following international outcry, a new synagogue was eventually re-established in a different location in 2009. However, the community has dwindled dramatically; the 2010 census recorded only 36 Jews in Tajikistan, with just two identified as Bukharan. By 2021, the last known Jew in Khujand, Jura Abaev, passed away, marking the end of a long-standing presence.

The Last Jews of Afghanistan

Jews in Afghanistan are sometimes considered part of the broader Bukharan Jewish community, though some identify specifically as "Afghan Jews." The Kazakh famine of 1930–1933 saw a significant influx of Bukharan Jews seeking refuge in Afghanistan. However, by 1935, "ghetto rules" were imposed, restricting Jewish life and leading to claims of widespread deaths. Decades of conflict, antisemitism, and religious persecution led to a continuous decline in the Jewish population. By 2004, only two known Jews remained: Zablon Simintov and Isaac Levy. Following Levy's death in 2005, Simintov was widely regarded as the last Jew in Afghanistan until his evacuation to Israel during the 2021 Taliban takeover, officially leaving no known Jews in the country.

A Thriving Hub in the United States

The United States is home to the largest concentration of Bukharan Jews outside of Israel, with a particularly vibrant community in New York City. Queens, specifically areas like Forest Hills and Kew Gardens, has become a prominent hub, often referred to as "Bukharan Broadway" or "Bukharlem." Here, a tight-knit enclave has formed, characterized by Bukharan restaurants, shops, and synagogues, such as Congregation Tifereth Israel in Corona, which transitioned from an Ashkenazi to a Bukharan congregation in the 1990s. While maintaining their distinct identity, they also engage with broader non-Bukharan communities. The First Congress of the Bukharian Jews of the United States and Canada convened in Queens in 1999, and by 2007, the community initiated lobbying efforts, signifying their growing presence and influence.

Vibrant Traditions

Distinctive Dress Codes

Bukharan Jews historically maintained a unique dress code, distinct from but influenced by other Central Asian cultures. This traditional attire, including the kaftan (known as Jomah in Bukhori and Tajik), was worn daily until the Soviet era and is now reserved for significant communal events like weddings and Bar Mitzvahs. A notable element is their distinctive kippah, a full head-sized covering intricately embroidered with rich patterns and lively colors. This unique kippah is sometimes adopted by liberal and Reform Jews today, showcasing its aesthetic appeal beyond its original community.

The Art of Shashmaqam

The Bukharan Jews possess a profound musical tradition known as shashmaqam. This ensemble music features stringed instruments, infused with Central Asian rhythms, and exhibits influences from Klezmer music, Muslim melodies, and even Spanish chords. Shashmaqam music is celebrated for reflecting a unique blend of Hassidic vocals, Indian and Islamic instrumentals, and Sufi-inspired texts and lyrical melodies. The dayereh, a frame drum, is a central instrument. Bukharan Jews were instrumental in preserving and transmitting this musical form during the Soviet period and continue to promote it in their new diasporic communities, with groups like Ensemble Shashmaqam in New York showcasing its beauty.

Wedding Traditions

Bukharan Jewish weddings are elaborate affairs, unfolding in several stages. The engagement, or Shirini-Khori, takes place at the bride's home, where a Rabbi congratulates the family and distributes sweets. This is followed by a week of celebrations at the groom's house, where relatives bring gifts to the bride. A unique pre-wedding custom is the Kosh-Chinon ceremony, practiced by both Jews and Muslims in Central Asia. This involves female guests plucking the bride's eyebrows and facial hair, symbolizing her transition to womanhood after immersing in the Mikveh. The wedding ceremony itself follows standard Jewish traditions, including the Ketubah, Chuppah, and Kiddish, with minor distinctions such as the Chuppah being a prayer shawl held by family members, and mothers stitching needles through the couple's clothing as they stand beneath it.

Culinary Delights

Bukharan Jewish cuisine is a rich adaptation of traditional Central Asian dishes, meticulously adhering to Kashrut (Jewish dietary laws). This culinary tradition served as a vital means of preserving Jewish identity during periods of exile. Key dishes include:

Osh palov: A weekday pilaf, a Bukharan Jewish version featuring both beef and chicken.
Bakhsh: Known as "green palov," this rice dish incorporates meat or chicken with green herbs like coriander, parsley, and dill. It comes in two varieties: bakhshi khaltagi, cooked in a bag immersed in boiling water or soup, and bakhshi degi, prepared like a regular pilaf in a cauldron. Bakhshi khaltagi is often served on Shabbat due to its precooked nature.
Oshi sabo (osh savo or osovoh): A "meal in a pot" slow-cooked overnight, traditionally eaten hot for Shabbat lunch. It combines meat, rice, vegetables, and fruit, offering a distinctive sweet and sour flavor, akin to a Bukharan cholent or hamin.
Khalta savo: Food cooked in a bag, typically rice and meat, sometimes with dried fruit.
Yakhni: A main course for Friday night dinner, consisting of two kinds of boiled meat (beef and chicken), brought whole to the table and sliced with broth and boiled vegetables.
Kov roghan: Fried chicken pieces served with a generous topping of fried potatoes.
Serkaniz (Sirkoniz): A garlic rice dish, another variation of pilaf.
Oshi piyozi: Stuffed onion.
Shulah: A Bukharan-style risotto.
Boyjon: An eggplant puree mixed with only salt and garlic, serving as the traditional starter for the Friday-night meal.
Slotah Bukhori: A refreshing salad made with tomato, cucumber, green onion, cilantro, salt, pepper, and lemon juice, sometimes including lettuce and chili pepper.
Bichak: Stuffed baked or fried pastry, a traditional treat for Rosh Hashanah and Sukkot.
Samsa: Pastries filled with spiced meat or vegetables, baked in a unique tandoor oven, resembling Indian samosas.
Noni Toki: A crispy flatbread baked on the back of a wok, resulting in a distinctive bowl shape.
Fried fish with garlic sauce (mai birion ovi sir): A staple for Friday night dinner, featuring fried fish covered in a pounded sauce of garlic and cilantro. Bread is often dipped in the leftover garlic water, known as noni-sir.
Chakchak: A popular sweet made from deep-fried, hazelnut-sized dough balls, drenched in hot honey, often with added hazelnuts or dried fruit.

Genetic Heritage

Autosomal Analyses and Jewish Clustering

Autosomal genetic analyses reveal that Bukharan Jews form a distinct genetic cluster. This cluster closely aligns with other Jewish populations from the broader West Asian region, including Iranian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, and Kurdish Jews. Significantly, this genetic grouping is entirely distinct from their immediate non-Jewish neighbors in Central Asia, underscoring their unique ethnoreligious identity and ancient lineage.

Regional Genetic Affinities

Geographically, the genetic cluster of Bukharan Jews positions itself between Levantine and Northern West Asian populations. Furthermore, when compared to non-Jewish populations, Bukharan Jews also show genetic affinities with other West Asian groups such as Kurds, Iranians, Armenians, Assyrians, and Levantine Arabs. This broader clustering highlights deep historical connections within the wider West Asian genetic landscape, while still maintaining a distinct Jewish genetic signature.

Notable Figures

In Israel

Assi Azar, television host and screenwriter
Yisrael Aharoni, celebrity chef and restaurateur
Mordekhai Batchaev, poet and radio broadcaster
Avi Benedi, singer and songwriter
Yoni Ben-Menachem, journalist and General Director of Israel Broadcasting Authority
Amnon Cohen, politician and member of the Knesset for Shas
Oded Davidoff, film and TV director
Guy Haimov, professional football player
Shimon Hakham, Bukharan rabbi, writer, one of the founders of the Bukharan Quarter
Robert Ilatov, politician and member of the Knesset for Yisrael Beiteinu
Avi Issacharoff, journalist and creator of the series Fauda
Lev Leviev, billionaire businessman, investor, philanthropist, president of the World Congress of Bukharian Jews
Nitzan Kaikov, songwriter and music producer
Rinat Matatov, actress
Moshe Mishaelof, professional football player
Shlomo Moussaieff, co-founder of the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem
Shlomo Moussaieff, businessman
Dorrit Moussaieff, former First Lady of Iceland
Rafael Pinhasi, politician and member of the Knesset for Shas
Albert Pinhasov, researcher; Rector of Ariel University
Gideon Sa'ar, politician who served as a member of Knesset for New Hope
Yulia Shamalov-Berkovich, politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Kadima
Esther Roth-Shahamorov, national athlete
Idan Yaniv, singer, "2007 Israeli Artist of the Year"
Benjamin Yusupov, classical composer, conductor and pianist

In the United States

Jacob Arabo, proprietor of Jacob & Co.
Michael Aronov, actor and playwright, Tony Award winner
Boris Kandov, president of the Bukharian Jewish Congress of the US and Canada
Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, author
Jacob Nasirov, Bukharan-American rabbi from Afghanistan (member of the Bukharian Rabbinical Counsel)
Greg Yuna, Jeweler
Rus Yusupov, Internet entrepreneur; co-founder of Vine
Iosef Yusupov, designer

In the United Kingdom

Yvonne Green (née Mammon), poet and translator
Jeremy Issacharoff, diplomat and ambassador for Israel
Anthony Yadgaroff, businessman, Jewish community leader

Other Regions

Alexandre Reza, Jeweler known for his diverse and rare collection of precious gemstones
Ari Babakhanov, musician from Uzbekistan
Eson Kandov, singer and Honored People's Artist of the USSR
Rena Galibova, Soviet actress, "People's Artist of Tajikistan"
Meirkhaim Gavrielov, journalist murdered in Tajikistan in 1998
Barno Itzhakova, vocalist, famous for her rendition of traditional Shashmaqom songs in Tajik and Uzbek
Malika Kalontarova, dancer, "People's Artist of Soviet Union" (Queen of Eastern Dance)
Fatima Kuinova, Soviet singer, "Merited Artist of the Soviet Union"
Ilyas Malayev, musician and poet from Uzbekistan, "Honoured Artist of Uzbekistan"
Shoista Mullodzhanova, Shashmakon singer, "People's Artist of Tajikistan" (Queen of Shashmakom music)
Gavriel Mullokandov, popular Shashmakom artist, "People's Artist of Uzbekistan"
Suleiman Yudakov, Soviet composer and musician, "People's Artist of the Uzbek SSR"
Yakhiel Sabzanov, Soviet composer, "People's Artist of the Tajik SSR"
Zablon Simintov, widely regarded as the last remaining Jew in Afghanistan, evacuated to Israel in 2021

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References

Goodman, Peter. "Bukharian Jews find homes on Long Island", Newsday, September 2004.

Ochildiev, D; R. Pinkhasov, I. Kalontarov. A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews, p. 161. Roshnoyi-Light, New York, 2007.

Ochildiev, D; R. Pinkhasov, I. Kalontarov. A History and Culture of the Bukharian Jews, Roshnoyi-Light, New York, 2007.

Malikov A. Arminius Vambery and the urban culture of Samarkand In: Orpheus Noster, Vol. 14, no. 4, 2022, p.97-108

Grace under fire The Jerusalem Post. 8 January 2009

Kippah Couture, The Forward, Angela Himsel, September 29, 2006.

Claudia Roden, The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand to New York, Alfred Knopf, New York (1996).

NYT,1-18-2006 The Silk Road Leads to Queens

A full list of references for this article are available at the Bukharan Jews Wikipedia page

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Echoes of Bukhara

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What Are Bukharan Jews? ℹ️

🌍 A Central Asian Jewish Subgroup

⏳ Ancient Roots and Enduring Identity

✈️ Modern Diaspora and Global Presence

The Bukhori Language 🗣️

📜 Linguistic Heritage

📖 Bukhori: A Unique Dialect

📉 Soviet Influence and Modern Usage

A Journey Through Time 🕰️

🌿 Ancient Origins and Early Settlements

👑 Under Various Dynasties

⛓️ Periods of Oppression and Resilience

✨ The Golden Age Under Imperial Russia

🕊️ Return to Zion: The Bukharan Quarter

☭ Soviet Era Challenges

🤝 Inter-Jewish Relations

Global Communities 🗺️

📉 Tajikistan's Diminishing Presence

💔 The Last Jews of Afghanistan

🗽 A Thriving Hub in the United States

Vibrant Traditions 🎭

👗 Distinctive Dress Codes

🎶 The Art of Shashmaqam

💍 Wedding Traditions

🍲 Culinary Delights

Genetic Heritage 🧬

🔬 Autosomal Analyses and Jewish Clustering

🗺️ Regional Genetic Affinities

Notable Figures 🌟

🇮🇱 In Israel

🇺🇸 In the United States

🇬🇧 In the United Kingdom

🌐 Other Regions

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What Are Bukharan Jews?

A Central Asian Jewish Subgroup

Ancient Roots and Enduring Identity

Modern Diaspora and Global Presence

The Bukhori Language

Linguistic Heritage

Bukhori: A Unique Dialect

Soviet Influence and Modern Usage

A Journey Through Time

Ancient Origins and Early Settlements

Under Various Dynasties

Periods of Oppression and Resilience

The Golden Age Under Imperial Russia

Return to Zion: The Bukharan Quarter

Soviet Era Challenges

Inter-Jewish Relations

Global Communities

Tajikistan's Diminishing Presence

The Last Jews of Afghanistan

A Thriving Hub in the United States

Vibrant Traditions

Distinctive Dress Codes

The Art of Shashmaqam

Wedding Traditions

Culinary Delights

Genetic Heritage

Autosomal Analyses and Jewish Clustering

Regional Genetic Affinities

Notable Figures

In Israel

In the United States

In the United Kingdom

Other Regions

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice