What was the Capture of Rome and when did it occur?

The Capture of Rome was an event that took place on September 20, 1870. During this event, forces of the Kingdom of Italy successfully took control of the city of Rome and the remaining Papal States. This action marked the culmination of the unification process in Italy, known as the Risorgimento.

What significant political and territorial changes resulted from the Capture of Rome?

The Capture of Rome led to the dissolution of the Papal States, which had been in existence since 756 AD, and ended the temporal power of the Holy See. Following the capture, Rome was officially designated as the capital of the unified Kingdom of Italy.

How is the Capture of Rome commemorated in Italy?

The Capture of Rome is widely commemorated throughout Italy, particularly in cities, by naming streets after the date of the event. These streets are commonly known as "Via XX Settembre," reflecting the 20th day of September.

What was the political situation in Italy regarding Rome prior to the 1870 capture?

Before 1870, Rome and the surrounding region of Lazio remained under the control of the Pope as part of the Papal States. A French garrison, stationed by Emperor Napoleon III, protected the city and the Pope's temporal power, preventing the Kingdom of Italy from annexing it, even after Italy's proclamation in 1861.

What role did the Franco-Prussian War play in the Capture of Rome?

The Franco-Prussian War, which began in July 1870, prompted France to withdraw its garrison from Rome to bolster its own defenses. This withdrawal removed the primary military obstacle to Italy's annexation of Rome, as the French were no longer able to protect the Pope's temporal power.

What was the First Vatican Council and its timing relative to the Capture of Rome?

The First Vatican Council, convened in 1869, was in session in Rome during the period leading up to the capture. It was during this council that the doctrine of papal infallibility was affirmed. However, the council's proceedings were interrupted and never reconvened due to the political turmoil and the subsequent capture of the city.

What proposal did King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy make to Pope Pius IX before the capture?

In early September 1870, King Victor Emmanuel II sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pope Pius IX with a proposal for the peaceful entry of the Italian army into Rome. The intention was to protect the Pope, but it also included ten articles outlining terms for an agreement that would effectively cede control of the city.

What were the key terms offered to Pope Pius IX in the Italian proposal for Rome's annexation?

The Italian government proposed that the Pope would retain his sovereign inviolability and prerogatives, with the Leonine City (around St. Peter's Basilica) remaining under his full jurisdiction. Guarantees were offered for the Pope's freedom of communication and diplomatic immunity, along with an annual fund and the absorption of papal civil servants and soldiers into the state payroll.

How did Pope Pius IX react to the Italian proposal for Rome's annexation?

Pope Pius IX reacted with strong disapproval to the Italian proposal. He reportedly called the Italians "vipers" and expressed his conviction that they would never enter Rome, ultimately refusing the ultimatum presented by Count Ponza di San Martino.

Who commanded the Italian forces during the Capture of Rome?

The Italian forces that entered Rome were commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna.

What was the composition and approximate size of the Papal forces defending Rome?

The Papal forces defending Rome consisted of approximately 13,157 soldiers, including the Swiss Guard, the Palatine Guard, and the Papal Zouaves. Many of the Papal Zouaves were foreign volunteers from countries like France, Austria, and the Netherlands.

What was the approximate size of the Italian army that besieged Rome?

The Italian army that besieged Rome numbered around 50,000 soldiers, significantly outnumbering the Papal defenders.

What was Pope Pius IX's strategy regarding the defense of Rome?

Pope Pius IX decided that his troops should offer some resistance to demonstrate that the Italian takeover was achieved through force, rather than by the free consent of the city. However, he did not intend for a prolonged or bloody defense.

When did the Italian artillery begin firing on Rome's walls?

The Italian artillery commenced its bombardment of Rome's ancient Aurelian Walls at 5 a.m. on September 20, 1870.

How was the breach in Rome's defenses achieved?

After approximately a few hours of artillery bombardment, the Italian army successfully breached the Aurelian Walls near Porta Pia. This breach allowed the Italian troops to enter the city.

What were the reported casualties during the Capture of Rome?

Casualty figures vary slightly in historical accounts. One report indicates 49 Italian soldiers and 19 Papal soldiers died. Another source suggests 32 Italian soldiers were killed and 145 wounded, while 12 Papal soldiers died and 47 were wounded.

What happened to the Papal Army after the capture of Rome?

Following the capture of Rome, the Papal Army was disbanded, and its foreign soldiers were repatriated. However, the Pope was allowed to retain the Swiss Guard, Noble Guard, and Palatine Guard units.

How did the Italian government seek to legitimize the annexation of Rome?

To legitimize the annexation, the Italian government, under Prime Minister Giovanni Lanza, organized a plebiscite in Rome on October 2, 1870. This vote allowed the citizens to formally approve or reject union with Italy.

What was the outcome of the plebiscite held in Rome on October 2, 1870?

The plebiscite resulted in an overwhelming majority in favor of union with Italy. Out of 167,548 eligible voters, 133,681 voted for annexation, with only 1,507 votes against.

How did Pope Pius IX respond to the plebiscite and the annexation of Rome?

Pope Pius IX denounced the plebiscite's results and alleged instances of electoral violence used to secure the vote. He issued the encyclical *Respicientes* on November 1, 1870, proclaiming a mass excommunication of those responsible for the invasion, including King Victor Emmanuel II.

What is meant by the term "Roman Question"?

The "Roman Question" refers to the period of diplomatic and political conflict between the Italian government and the Papacy that lasted for nearly sixty years after the Capture of Rome. It stemmed from the Pope's refusal to recognize the loss of his temporal power and territory.

What agreement eventually resolved the "Roman Question"?

The "Roman Question" was formally resolved through the signing of the Lateran Pacts on February 11, 1929, between the government of Fascist Italy and the Holy See.

Who signed the Lateran Pacts, and on behalf of which entities?

The Lateran Pacts were signed by Benito Mussolini, representing King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, and by Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, who served as the Cardinal Secretary of State for Pope Pius XI.

What were the key outcomes of the Lateran Pacts?

The Lateran Pacts established Vatican City as an independent sovereign state, recognized Catholicism as the official religion of Italy (initially), and settled the territorial and political disputes between Italy and the Holy See, ending the "Roman Question."

How did the Lateran Pacts' provisions regarding religion in Italy evolve?

Initially, the 1929 Lateran Treaty stipulated that Catholicism was the sole religion of the Italian state. However, a revision in 1984 removed this clause, declaring it no longer in force, and established a new system of state funding for religious groups through the "otto per mille" tax.

What is the significance of the "Via della Conciliazione" in Rome?

The Via della Conciliazione is a major avenue in Rome constructed after the Lateran Pacts. It was commissioned by Benito Mussolini to symbolically connect Vatican City with the historic center of Rome, representing the reconciliation between the Italian state and the Papacy.

What was the function of the French garrison in Rome prior to the city's capture?

The French garrison, stationed in Rome by Emperor Napoleon III, served to protect Pope Pius IX and maintain his temporal power over the Papal States, acting as a deterrent against Italian unification efforts targeting Rome.

What was the "Act of Capitulation" signed during the Capture of Rome?

The Act of Capitulation was the formal document signed by the Papal commander, General Hermann Kanzler, and the Italian commander, General Raffaele Cadorna, which officially surrendered the city of Rome (excluding the Leonine City) to the Royal Italian Army.

What does the term "prisoner in the Vatican" refer to?

The term "prisoner in the Vatican" describes the self-imposed confinement of Pope Pius IX following the Capture of Rome. Despite the Law of Guarantees offering him privileges, he refused to accept the legitimacy of the Italian state and considered himself confined within the Vatican walls until his death.

When was Rome officially declared the capital of Italy?

Rome was officially declared the capital of the Kingdom of Italy on February 3, 1871, following its capture and the subsequent plebiscite confirming its annexation.

What is meant by the "temporal power of the Holy See"?

The "temporal power of the Holy See" refers to the Pope's authority as a sovereign ruler over a specific territory, the Papal States, exercising political and administrative control. This power was distinct from his spiritual authority over the Catholic Church and ended with the Capture of Rome.

What was the significance of the breach at Porta Pia during the Capture of Rome?

The breach at Porta Pia was the critical point where Italian artillery successfully penetrated Rome's ancient Aurelian Walls. It served as the main entry point for the Italian army into the city, symbolizing the decisive moment of the conquest.

Who was Hermann Kanzler in the context of the Capture of Rome?

Hermann Kanzler was the commander of the Papal forces defending Rome during the Italian army's assault in September 1870. He signed the Act of Capitulation on behalf of the Papal States.

How did the "Roman Question" relate to the Lateran Pacts?

The Lateran Pacts, signed in 1929, were the diplomatic agreement that resolved the "Roman Question." This treaty ended the decades-long dispute between the Italian state and the Papacy concerning the Pope's temporal power and sovereignty after the loss of the Papal States.

What is the historical significance of the date "20 September" in Italy?

The date 20 September is significant in Italy as it marks the Capture of Rome in 1870, which completed the unification of the country and established Rome as its capital. This date is commemorated by streets named "Via XX Settembre."

What was the "Donation of Pepin" and its connection to the Papal States?

The "Donation of Pepin," occurring in the mid-8th century (around 756 AD), was a grant of territory from the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short to the Pope. This act laid the foundation for the Papal States, a sovereign territory ruled by the papacy for over a millennium until its annexation by Italy in 1870.

What role did Giuseppe Garibaldi play in the unification of Italy leading up to the Capture of Rome?

Giuseppe Garibaldi was a key figure in the unification of Italy. His "Expedition of the Thousand" in 1860 resulted in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, a significant step that paved the way for the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy and the eventual drive to incorporate Rome.

What was the "Law of Guarantees" enacted in 1871?

The "Law of Guarantees" was legislation passed by the Italian Parliament in May 1871 to define the relationship between the Italian state and the Papacy after the loss of Rome. It granted the Pope extensive privileges, including independence in foreign affairs and an annual financial grant, but was rejected by Pope Pius IX.

What does the artwork titled "Breach of Porta Pia" by Carlo Ademollo depict?

The artwork "Breach of Porta Pia," created by Carlo Ademollo in 1880, visually represents the pivotal moment during the Capture of Rome when Italian artillery broke through the city's Aurelian Walls near Porta Pia.

What historical context is provided by the map showing Italy in early 1870?

The map illustrates the political divisions of Italy shortly before the final unification. It clearly delineates the territory of the Kingdom of Italy, shown in azure, and the remaining Papal States, depicted in purple.

What is shown in the contemporary photograph of the Aurelian Walls near Porta Pia?

The photograph captures the actual physical breach in the Aurelian Walls near Porta Pia, which was created by Italian artillery fire. This breach served as the entry point for Italian troops during the Capture of Rome.

What is the historical significance of the flag preserved by the Ruspoli family?

The flag that flew over Porta Pia during the Capture of Rome was preserved by the Ruspoli noble family for nearly 141 years. Its preservation symbolizes the event, and its eventual return to the Vatican in 2011 marked a symbolic reconciliation.

What event does the image of the celebration outside the Palazzo Senatorio commemorate?

The image depicts a celebration held in 1871 outside the Palazzo Senatorio, commemorating the Roman plebiscite of October 2, 1870. This plebiscite confirmed the citizens' desire to join the Kingdom of Italy, finalizing Rome's incorporation.

What is the "Monument to the Capture of Rome"?

The "Monument to the Capture of Rome" is a victory column and monument located near Porta Pia. It stands as a memorial to the event of the Capture of Rome and the breaching of the city walls by Italian forces.

What was the role of the Papal Zouaves in the defense of Rome?

The Papal Zouaves were a unit composed of foreign volunteers who fought alongside the Swiss Guard and Palatine Guard to defend Rome against the invading Italian army during the Capture of Rome in 1870.

How did the Italian government attempt to ensure the legitimacy of the plebiscite in Rome?

The Italian government organized a plebiscite on October 2, 1870, allowing Roman citizens to vote on joining Italy. Although the result was overwhelmingly in favor of annexation, Pope Pius IX later denounced the process, citing alleged instances of electoral violence.

What was the specific role of the Leonine City in the context of the Capture of Rome?

The Leonine City, which includes St. Peter's Basilica and the Apostolic Palace, was designated to be spared from the Italian military assault as part of the surrender terms. It was intended to remain under the Pope's jurisdiction following the capture of the rest of Rome.

How long did the "Roman Question" persist, and what was its nature?

The "Roman Question" persisted for approximately sixty years, from the Capture of Rome in 1870 until the signing of the Lateran Pacts in 1929. It was characterized by a period of hostility and unresolved diplomatic issues between the Italian state and the Papacy following the loss of the Pope's temporal power.

What was the initial religious stance of the Lateran Pacts signed in 1929?

The first article of the Lateran Treaty, signed in 1929, established Catholicism as the sole religion of the Italian State, reflecting the historical ties between the Church and the nation.

How did the 1984 revision of the Lateran Pacts change the status of religion in Italy?

The 1984 revision of the Lateran Pacts removed the provision that Catholicism was the sole state religion of Italy. It also altered the financial support system for the Church, replacing direct state funding with a voluntary contribution system known as the "otto per mille."

What is the "otto per mille" system mentioned in relation to the Lateran Pacts revision?

The "otto per mille" is a system introduced after the 1984 revision of the Lateran Pacts, allowing taxpayers to allocate a portion (eight per thousand) of their income tax to a recognized religious group or to the state for social purposes. This replaced the previous direct state funding of the Catholic Church.

Capture Of Rome Wiki: The Unification of Italy: Rome's Pivotal Moment

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Historical Context

The Risorgimento Imperative

The mid-19th century witnessed the fervent drive for Italian unification, known as the Risorgimento. By 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, but its territorial integrity remained incomplete. Key regions, notably Rome and Veneto, were still outside the nascent nation's control. Rome, the historical heart of Italy and the seat of the Papacy, was particularly crucial for the symbolic and political completion of unification. However, its governance was maintained by the Papal States, supported by a French military garrison under Emperor Napoleon III.

The Papal States and Temporal Power

For centuries, the Holy See wielded not only spiritual authority but also temporal power, governing a significant territory in central Italy. This temporal power was seen by Pope Pius IX as essential for the Church's independence and spiritual mission. The Kingdom of Italy, however, viewed the continued existence of the Papal States as an obstacle to national unity, advocating for a secular state where the Church operated freely within its spiritual domain, a principle articulated by Count Cavour as "a free Church in a free State."

French Influence and Shifting Alliances

The presence of French troops in Rome was a critical factor. While France supported the Papacy, its strategic interests were complex. The Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 saw Italian territories annexed by Sardinia, and Giuseppe Garibaldi's subsequent campaigns further expanded Italian control. The Franco-Prussian War, declared in July 1870, dramatically altered the geopolitical landscape. France's need to defend its own territory led Napoleon III to withdraw the garrison from Rome, creating a critical window of opportunity for Italy.

Prelude to the Breach

Diplomatic Overtures and Papal Resolve

Following the withdrawal of French forces, the Italian government, led by Prime Minister Giovanni Lanza, sought a peaceful resolution. King Victor Emmanuel II dispatched Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pope Pius IX with a proposal for Rome's entry into the Kingdom of Italy. The terms offered significant autonomy to the Papacy, including sovereignty over the Leonine City, guarantees for the Pope's inviolability and freedom of communication, and financial support. However, Pope Pius IX vehemently rejected these overtures, famously declaring that Italy would never enter Rome.

Military Mobilization and Final Ultimatum

Despite the diplomatic impasse, Italian forces under General Raffaele Cadorna advanced into the Papal States, securing key locations. Cadorna issued a final ultimatum to the Papal commander in Rome, General Hermann Kanzler, urging a peaceful surrender to avoid bloodshed. Kanzler, bound by the Pope's directive, refused, holding the Italian government responsible for any ensuing casualties. The Papal forces, though outnumbered, were prepared to defend the city, comprising Swiss Guards, the Palatine Guard, and Papal Zouaves, many of whom were foreign volunteers.

The Capture of Rome

Breaching the Aurelian Walls

On the morning of September 20, 1870, Italian artillery commenced bombardment of Rome's ancient Aurelian Walls. The assault focused on a section near Porta Pia. Despite a brief and symbolic resistance from the Papal forces, the Italian army, numbering around 50,000 against approximately 13,000 defenders, successfully breached the walls within hours. The Italian troops, including the elite Bersaglieri, entered the city, effectively ending Papal temporal rule.

Capitulation and Casualties

The engagement resulted in casualties on both sides, though significantly fewer than might have been expected given the disparity in forces and the symbolic nature of the resistance. Official figures indicate around 49 Italian soldiers and 19 Papal soldiers were killed, with numerous wounded. General Kanzler formally signed the Act of Capitulation at Villa Albani, surrendering Rome, except for the Leonine City, which was reserved for the Pope. The Papal army was subsequently disbanded, with foreign soldiers repatriated.

Immediate Consequences

The Plebiscite and Annexation

To legitimize the annexation, a plebiscite was held in Rome on October 2, 1870. The results showed an overwhelming majority in favor of union with the Kingdom of Italy, with over 133,000 votes for annexation and only 1,507 against. This outcome was formally recognized by a royal decree on October 9, confirming Rome and Lazio's incorporation into Italy. However, Pope Pius IX denounced the plebiscite and the manner of Rome's seizure, issuing the encyclical Respicientes which declared excommunication for those involved in the occupation, including King Victor Emmanuel II.

The Roman Question and the Law of Guarantees

The capture of Rome created the "Roman Question"—the unresolved conflict between the Italian state and the Papacy. The Italian Parliament passed the Law of Guarantees in May 1871, offering the Pope extensive privileges, including diplomatic immunity, freedom of communication, and an annual stipend. Despite these provisions, Pius IX refused to recognize the legitimacy of the Italian state, confining himself to the Vatican and declaring himself a "prisoner in the Vatican." This standoff persisted for decades.

Enduring Legacy

Resolving the Roman Question

The protracted dispute between the Italian state and the Holy See, the Roman Question, was finally resolved in 1929 with the signing of the Lateran Pacts. These agreements recognized Vatican City as an independent sovereign state and established a framework for relations between Italy and the Holy See. Subsequent revisions to the concordat in 1984 removed Catholicism's status as the sole state religion of Italy, reflecting a changing societal landscape.

Rome as Capital

The capture of Rome marked the definitive completion of Italian unification, establishing Rome as the nation's capital. This event fundamentally reshaped the political map of Italy and had profound implications for the role of the Papacy in the modern world. Streets across Italy, particularly in Rome, are still named "Via XX Settembre" to commemorate this pivotal date in Italian history.

Citations

Source References

The following citations are used throughout this document to attribute specific information to its original source:

^ ^a ^b ^c "Cirkevn\u00e9 dejiny / Pred 150 rokmi sa skon\u010dila svetsk\u00e1 moc p\u00e1pe\u017eov".
^ ^a ^b ^c Bartolini 2020, p. 311.
^ Bartolini 2020, p. 334.
^ Schapiro 1922, p. 208.
^ ^a ^b Schapiro 1922, p. 218.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 7.
^ Field 2012, p. 54.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 51.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 44.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Kertzer 2006, p. 45.
^ These words are derived from the Biblical Book of Amos 7:14.
^ de Cesare 1909, p. 444.
^ Kertzer 2006, p. 48.
^ Rendina 2000, p. 985.
^ Kertzer 2006, pp. 51–52.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 52.
^ "Vaticano, la bandiera di Porta Pia ritorna dopo 141 anni". La Stampa. 29 September 2011.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 53.
^ De Cesare, 1909, p. 443
^ ^a ^b ^c Kertzer 2006, p. 55.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 56.
^ Kertzer 2006, pp. 55–56.
^ Alvarez, David (9 May 2011). The Pope's Soldiers. University Press of Kansas. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-7006-1770-8.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 57.
^ Coppa 2014, p. 142.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Coppa 2014, p. 143.
^ Kertzer 2006, pp. 57–58.
^ Kertzer 2006, p. 58.
^ Bartolini 2020, p. 324.
^ ^a ^b Kertzer 2006, p. 60.
^ "Respicientes - Papal Encyclicals". 1 November 1870.
^ ^a ^b Coppa 2014, p. 145.
^ Kertzer 2006, p. 3.
^ "Vatican City turns 91". Vatican News. 11 February 2020.
^ "Patti lateranensi, 11 febbraio 1929 – Segreteria di Stato, card. Pietro Gasparri". www.vatican.va.
^ Constitution of Italy, article 7.
^ "Agreement between the Italian Republic and the Holy See (English translation)" (PDF). The American Society of International Law. Archived from the original on 22 September 2020.

References

Bibliographic Sources

Bartolini, Giulio (2020). Bartolini, Giulio (ed.). A History of International Law in Italy. The History and Theory of International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884293-4. OCLC 1144092638.
de Cesare, Raffaele (1909). The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1850-1870. Translated by Zimmern, Helen. London: A. Constable & Co.
Coppa, Frank J. (2014) [1992]. The Origins of the Italian Wars of Independence. Origins of modern wars. London: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-04045-8.
Field, Ron (2012). Garibaldi. Command Series. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-322-5.
Kertzer, David I. (2006). Prisoner of the Vatican: The Popes, the Kings, and Garibaldi's Rebels in the Struggle to Rule Modern Italy. Boston: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-618-61919-1.
Rendina, Claudio (2000). Rendina, Claudio (ed.). La Grande Enciclopedia di Roma: Personaggi, Curiosità, Monumenti, Storia, Arte e Folclore della Città Eterna dalle Origini al Duemila. Quest'Italia (in Italian). Roma: Newton & Compton. ISBN 978-88-8289-316-3.
Schapiro, J. Salwyn (1922). Shotwell, James T. (ed.). Modern and Contemporary European History (1815-1921). Boston; New York; Chicago: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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References

Constitution of Italy, article 7.

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The Unification of Italy: Rome's Pivotal Moment

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Historical Context

The Risorgimento Imperative

The Papal States and Temporal Power

French Influence and Shifting Alliances

Prelude to the Breach

Diplomatic Overtures and Papal Resolve

Military Mobilization and Final Ultimatum

The Capture of Rome

Breaching the Aurelian Walls

Capitulation and Casualties

Immediate Consequences

The Plebiscite and Annexation

The Roman Question and the Law of Guarantees

Enduring Legacy

Resolving the Roman Question

Rome as Capital

Related Topics

Further Exploration

Citations

Source References

References

Bibliographic Sources

External Resources

Further Reading and Media

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The Unification of Italy: Rome's Pivotal Moment

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Historical Context 🌍

🇮🇹 The Risorgimento Imperative

🇻🇦 The Papal States and Temporal Power

🇫🇷 French Influence and Shifting Alliances

Prelude to the Breach ⏳

🕊️ Diplomatic Overtures and Papal Resolve

⚔️ Military Mobilization and Final Ultimatum

The Capture of Rome 💥

🧱 Breaching the Aurelian Walls

⚖️ Capitulation and Casualties

Immediate Consequences ➡️

🗳️ The Plebiscite and Annexation

🔒 The Roman Question and the Law of Guarantees

Enduring Legacy 🏛️

🤝 Resolving the Roman Question

📍 Rome as Capital

Related Topics 🔗

📚 Further Exploration

Citations 📝

🔢 Source References

References 📚

📖 Bibliographic Sources

External Resources 🌐

🔗 Further Reading and Media

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Context

The Risorgimento Imperative

The Papal States and Temporal Power

French Influence and Shifting Alliances

Prelude to the Breach

Diplomatic Overtures and Papal Resolve

Military Mobilization and Final Ultimatum

The Capture of Rome

Breaching the Aurelian Walls

Capitulation and Casualties

Immediate Consequences

The Plebiscite and Annexation

The Roman Question and the Law of Guarantees

Enduring Legacy

Resolving the Roman Question

Rome as Capital

Related Topics

Further Exploration

Citations

Source References

References

Bibliographic Sources

External Resources

Further Reading and Media

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

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Important Notice Regarding Content