Echoes of Empathy
Exploring the profound impact of Carol Gilligan's 'different voice' on ethical theory, feminist thought, and psychological development.
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Who is Gilligan?
A Pioneering Scholar
Carol Gilligan, born November 28, 1936, is a distinguished American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist. Her scholarly contributions are primarily centered on the concepts of ethical community and the dynamics of ethical relationships. She has held prominent academic positions, including Professor of Humanities and Applied Psychology at New York University and a visiting professorship at the University of Cambridge's Centre for Gender Studies.[6]
The "Different Voice"
Gilligan is most widely recognized for her seminal 1982 work, In a Different Voice. This book presented a significant critique of Lawrence Kohlberg's influential stages of moral development, arguing that his framework was predominantly male-oriented and thus limited in its applicability to women's moral reasoning.[11] Her work introduced the concept of the "ethics of care," establishing her as its originator and a pivotal figure in feminist thought.[1]
Influential Recognition
Her profound impact on psychology and feminism has garnered significant recognition. In 1996, Time magazine acknowledged her as one of America's 25 most influential people, underscoring the broad reach and importance of her ideas.[1] Her work continues to shape discussions on gender, ethics, and human development.
Early Life & Education
Roots in New York
Carol Gilligan was raised in New York City within a Jewish family, the only child of William Friedman, a lawyer, and Mabel Caminez, a nursery school teacher. Her early education included attendance at the public Hunter Model School and the progressive Walden School on Manhattan's Upper West Side, where she also cultivated her musical talents by playing the piano.[3]
Academic Foundations
Her academic journey began with a Bachelor of Arts summa cum laude in English literature from Swarthmore College. She then pursued advanced studies, earning a Master's degree in clinical psychology from Radcliffe College, followed by a Ph.D. in social psychology from Harvard University. Her doctoral dissertation, titled "Responses to Temptation: An Analysis of Motives," laid the groundwork for her future research into moral reasoning.[4][5]
A Brief Detour
Interestingly, after completing her doctoral studies, Gilligan experienced a period of disillusionment with academia. This led her to temporarily step away from the academic path to explore a career in modern dance, a testament to her diverse interests and intellectual curiosity before returning to her scholarly pursuits.[3]
Career Trajectory
Harvard & Beyond
Gilligan's academic career is marked by significant appointments at prestigious institutions. She began teaching as a lecturer at the University of Chicago (1965–1966) and then at Harvard University (1967). She became an assistant professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education in 1971, eventually earning tenure as a full professor in 1988. Her tenure at Harvard also included serving as the Patricia Albjerg Graham Chair in Gender Studies from 1997.[4]
Global & Interdisciplinary Reach
Her influence extended internationally, as she served as the Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions and a visiting professorial fellow at the University of Cambridge from 1992 to 1994. Later, from 2003 to 2009, she was a visiting professor at Cambridge's Centre for Gender Studies. In 2002, she transitioned to New York University as a full professor in both the School of Education and the School of Law, demonstrating her interdisciplinary approach to psychology and ethics.[6]
Prolific Contributions
Throughout her career, Gilligan has been a prolific author and editor, often collaborating with her students on texts exploring women's psychology and girls' development.[6] Her contributions include a piece in the 2003 anthology Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium and her first novel, Kyra, published in 2008.[7][8] She also taught for a semester at NYU Abu Dhabi in 2015.[10]
Psychological Contributions
Critiquing Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan is renowned for her critical engagement with Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development. As his research assistant, she observed that Kohlberg's framework, rooted in a "masculine voice," was limited in its ability to accurately assess the moral reasoning of females. She argued that prominent psychological theories of the time, from Freud to Piaget, often portrayed women as developmentally deficient due to their male-centric perspectives.[11]
Two Moral Voices
Gilligan proposed the existence of two distinct moral voices: the masculine and the feminine. The masculine voice, she posited, is "logical and individualistic," prioritizing rights and justice. Conversely, the feminine voice emphasizes "interpersonal relationships and taking care of other people," focusing on a "care perspective" to make ethical decisions based on individual needs.[12][13] She advocated for androgyny—the integration of both masculine and feminine moral perspectives—as the optimal path for human potential.
Stages of Female Moral Development
Building upon Kohlberg's structure, Gilligan developed her own stages of moral development, specifically tailored to reflect women's experiences and their emphasis on relational ethics. These stages highlight a progression from self-interest to a universal ethic of care, with crucial transitions marking shifts in perspective.
Selected Works
In a Different Voice (1982)
Considered her most influential work, this book challenged prevailing psychological theories by introducing the "ethics of care." Gilligan's research, based on interviews with college students, women facing abortion decisions, and individuals discussing self and morality, revealed that women often perceive moral problems as issues of human relationships rather than abstract logic. This "different voice" is characterized by theme, not strictly by gender, and has been translated into 20 languages, selling over 700,000 copies.[11][17]
The Birth of Pleasure (2002)
In this work, Gilligan explores the complexities of love and pleasure through various historical and literary narratives, including Adam and Eve, Cupid, Anne Frank, and characters from The English Patient.[16] She delves into why humans often experience pain before finding pleasure in love, arguing that patriarchal structures can inhibit the ability to love freely and authentically, reinforcing gendered behaviors.[20]
Adolescent Girls' Development
Gilligan has extensively researched the psychological development of adolescent girls, often in collaboration with other scholars. Her works in this area provide critical insights into the challenges girls face during adolescence, including the risk of losing their authentic voices and connections with others.
Mapping the Moral Domain (1989)
Co-authored with Janie Victoria Ward, Betty Bardige, and Jill McLean Taylor, this book expands upon the theoretical foundations of In a Different Voice. It contrasts how men and women discuss relationships, providing evidence for different meanings of connection, dependence, autonomy, and responsibility. The authors refined the concept from "gender specific" to "gender related," acknowledging that individuals of any gender can utilize either moral perspective.[26][28]
Theater & Voice
The Company of Women
In 1991, Carol Gilligan co-founded an all-female theater group called the Company of Women with Kristin Linklater, a renowned voice instructor. This venture allowed Gilligan to explore the concept of "voice" beyond its psychological implications, delving into its physical and performative dimensions. Her engagement with theater deepened her understanding of how individuals express themselves and navigate societal expectations.[29]
Adapting The Scarlet Letter
Gilligan's theatrical work extended to playwriting when Tina Packer invited her to draft a script for Nathaniel Hawthorne's classic novel, The Scarlet Letter. In early fall of 2002, Gilligan, in collaboration with her son Jonathan Gilligan, released a theater adaptation of the novel. The play premiered on September 14, 2002, at Shakespeare & Company in Lenox, Massachusetts.[29][30]
Themes on Stage
Through her adaptation of The Scarlet Letter, Gilligan utilized the narrative to explore and present many of her core psychological and feminist concepts. She highlighted how patriarchal structures not only enforce rigid gender roles but also impede genuine pleasure and connection in human relationships. Gilligan suggested that Hawthorne's work demonstrated the enduring tension between puritanical society and the forces of love and passion, even after political revolutions. Her adaptation implied that contemporary society has inherited a world where women are no longer literally branded, but still navigate complex societal pressures.[29]
Core Theories
The Ethics of Care
In her seminal work, In a Different Voice, Carol Gilligan introduced her "ethics of care" theory as a profound alternative to Lawrence Kohlberg's hierarchical and principled approach to ethics. She posited that women generally approach ethical dilemmas from a perspective centered on understanding responsibilities and relationships, contrasting with men's tendency to focus on moral fairness, rights, and abstract rules.[31]
Context vs. Abstraction
Gilligan argued that women tend to perceive moral issues as problems of conflicting responsibilities, viewing situations as more contextual and narrative. Men, conversely, often define situations in more formal and abstract terms, focusing on competing rights. This fundamental difference in moral reasoning highlights a divergence in ethical frameworks.[32]
Patriarchal vs. Democratic Frameworks
Gilligan further articulated a critical distinction: within a patriarchal framework, care is often relegated to a "feminine ethic." However, within a democratic framework, care transcends gender, becoming a "human ethic." Her feminist ethic of care seeks to integrate reason with emotion, mind with body, and self with relationships, thereby challenging and resisting the divisive structures that uphold a patriarchal order.[11] She identifies these distinct moral approaches—the "ethics of care" and the "ethics of justice"—as fundamentally incompatible in their purest forms.[32]
Criticism & Debate
Societal Construction
Gilligan's ethics of care have faced scrutiny from other feminist scholars, such as Jaclyn Friedman. Friedman argues that the observed differences in ethical reasoning between women and men are not inherent but rather a product of societal expectations. She suggests that these distinct modes of reasoning are a socially constructed dichotomy, perpetuated by cultural norms that dictate how women and men are expected to act and think about ethics.[32]
Methodological Concerns
Christina Hoff Sommers has criticized Gilligan's research, asserting that it is "ill-founded" and lacks sufficient empirical evidence to support her conclusions regarding gender differences in moral reasoning.[33] This critique often centers on the methodology and interpretation of data used to establish the distinct moral voices.
Exaggeration & Scope
Dennis M. Senchuk offers another perspective, suggesting that Gilligan's reliance on hypothetical dilemmas in her theory may lead to an exaggeration of the differences between males and females. He notes perceived similarities between Gilligan's theory and Schopenhauer's misogynistic views, recommending that her theory should be "extended – by the imagination – beyond the here and now" rather than being confined to immediate personal relationships.
Personal Life
Family & Collaborations
Carol Gilligan is married to James Gilligan, M.D., a psychiatrist who formerly directed the Center for the Study of Violence at Harvard Medical School.[34] Together, they raised three children: Jonathan, Timothy, and Christopher. Her son, Jonathan Gilligan, a professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Vanderbilt University, has notably collaborated with his mother on creative projects, including the feminist adaptation of Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter and the libretto for the opera Pearl.[30]
Accomplished Children
Her other children have also achieved significant professional success. Timothy Gilligan serves as the vice-chair for Education and associate professor of medicine at the Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute.[35] Christopher Gilligan is the Associate Chief Medical Officer of Brigham and Women's Hospital and Director of the Brigham and Women's Spine Center. This demonstrates a family legacy of intellectual and professional achievement across diverse fields.
Awards & Honors
Prestigious Recognitions
Carol Gilligan's groundbreaking work has been recognized with numerous prestigious awards and honors throughout her career, highlighting her significant contributions to psychology, ethics, and feminist thought.
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References
References
- Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003.
- Kyoto Prize 2025
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