What is the primary function of the dative case in grammar?

In grammar, the dative case is a grammatical case primarily used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action. For example, in the Latin phrase 'Maria Jacobo potum dedit' (Maria gave Jacob a drink), 'Jacobo' is in the dative case, marking Jacob as the indirect object who receives the drink.

Beyond indicating a recipient, what other functions can the dative case have in certain languages?

Sometimes, the dative case can have functions unrelated to giving. For instance, in Scottish Gaelic and Irish, it refers to the prepositional case-marking of nouns following simple prepositions and the definite article. In Georgian and Hindustani, the dative case can also mark the subject of a sentence, a phenomenon known as the dative construction.

Which language families have preserved the dative case from early Indo-European languages?

The dative case was common in early Indo-European languages and has persisted in the Balto-Slavic and Germanic branches, as well as in Albanian and other languages. It also appears in similar forms in several non-Indo-European language families, such as the Uralic languages.

How has the dative case evolved in Ancient Greek regarding its functions?

In Ancient Greek, the dative case assimilated the functions of other cases that are now extinct in Proto-Indo-European. Specifically, it took on the roles of the locative case (indicating location) and the instrumental case (indicating means or instrument), in addition to its original dative functions.

How has the English language influenced the use of the term 'dative' in some contexts?

Due to the influence of English, which uses the preposition 'to' for both indirect objects (e.g., 'give to') and directions of movement (e.g., 'go to'), the term 'dative' has occasionally been applied to cases that would be more accurately described as lative (indicating motion towards) in other languages.

What is the etymological origin of the term 'dative'?

The term 'dative' originates from the Latin 'casus dativus', meaning 'case for giving'. This Latin term itself is a translation of the Greek 'dotikē ptôsis', which means 'inflection for giving'.

Did Old English possess a dative case, and what happened to it?

Yes, the Old English language had a distinct dative case. However, the English case system gradually declined during the Middle English period, leading to the merger of the accusative and dative of pronouns into a single oblique case, which was also used with all prepositions.

What term do modern grammarians typically use for the merged accusative and dative forms in English?

Because of the conflation of cases in Middle and Modern English, most modern grammarians consider the labels 'accusative' and 'dative' obsolete for English, often using the term 'objective' to refer to the oblique case.

In what specific modern English expression can a remnant of the dative case be observed?

A remnant of the dative case can be argued to survive in the modern English expression 'methinks', which means 'it seems to me'. This fixed form evolved from Old English, where it was constructed with the dative case of the personal pronoun 'me' and a verb meaning 'to seem'.

How are modern English pronouns like 'whom', 'him', and 'her' connected to Old English dative forms?

The modern objective case pronoun 'whom' is derived from the Old English dative pronoun 'hwām', although it also absorbed the functions of the Old English accusative pronoun 'hwone'. Similarly, 'him' comes from the Old English dative 'him' (the accusative was 'hine'), and 'her' comes from the dative 'hire' (the accusative was 'hīe'). These pronouns are not pure datives in modern English, as they now also serve functions previously indicated by the accusative.

How can an indirect object be expressed in Modern English sentences?

In Modern English, the indirect object of a verb can be placed directly between the verb and the direct object, as in 'he gave me a book' or 'he wrote me a poem'. Alternatively, it can be expressed using a prepositional phrase with 'to', such as 'he gave a book to me'.

What is the primary role of the dative case in German grammar?

In German, the dative case (Dativ) is primarily used to mark the indirect object of a sentence, indicating the recipient or beneficiary of an action.

Provide examples of German sentences demonstrating the use of the dative case for masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns.

Examples include: 'Ich schickte dem Mann(e) das Buch' (I sent the book to the man) for masculine, 'Ich gab der Frau den Stift zurück' (I gave the pencil back to the woman) for feminine, and 'Ich überreiche dem Kind(e) ein Geschenk' (I hand a present to the child) for neuter.

What is the typical word order for dative and accusative objects in a German sentence?

The normal word order in German places the dative object in front of the accusative object. However, because the German dative is clearly marked by its form, it can also be placed after the accusative object, for example, 'Ich schickte das Buch dem Mann(e)'.

Explain the archaic '-e' ending for certain dative nouns in German.

The '-e' ending after nouns like 'Mann' and 'Kind' in the dative case is a largely archaic feature for certain nouns. It survives today almost exclusively in fixed phrases such as 'zu Hause' (at home) and 'am Tage' (during the day), and occasionally in formal prose, poetry, and song lyrics.

What are 'weak nouns' or 'n-nouns' in German, and how do they inflect in the dative singular and plural?

Weak nouns, also known as n-nouns, are certain masculine nouns (and one neuter noun, 'Herz') that take an '-n' or '-en' ending in the dative singular and plural. Many of these are masculine nouns ending in '-e' in the nominative (e.g., 'Name', 'Beamte', 'Junge'), and often refer to people, animals, professions, or titles, though exceptions exist.

How do 'two-way' prepositions in German determine whether to use the dative or accusative case?

Some German prepositions, known as 'two-way' prepositions (e.g., 'an', 'auf', 'in', 'über', 'unter', 'vor', 'zwischen'), can be used with either the dative or accusative case. They take the dative case when indicating a current location (where something is), and the accusative case when indicating a direction or movement towards something (where something is going).

How are genitive-requiring prepositions often used in colloquial German?

In colloquial German, the four prepositions 'anstatt' (in place of), 'trotz' (in spite of), 'während' (during), and 'wegen' (because of), which formally require the genitive case, are most commonly used with the dative case. For example, 'wegen dem Wetter' is used instead of the formally correct 'wegen des Wetters' for 'because of the weather'.

How do German articles change in the dative case for masculine, feminine, neuter, and plural forms?

In the dative case, German definite articles change to 'dem' for masculine and neuter singular, 'der' for feminine singular, and 'den' for plural. Indefinite articles become 'einem' for masculine and neuter singular, 'einer' for feminine singular, and there is no direct indefinite article for plural (though 'einigen' is semantically close). Negative articles become 'keinem' for masculine and neuter singular, 'keiner' for feminine singular, and 'keinen' for plural.

How are passive constructions formed for German verbs that take dative objects?

German verbs that require dative objects cannot be used in normal passive constructions, which are typically reserved for verbs with accusative objects. Instead, an 'impersonal passive' construction is used, such as 'Mir wird geholfen' (literally: 'To me is helped'), or colloquially, 'Ich kriege geholfen' (I get helped).

When is the dative case used with reflexive verbs in German?

The dative case is used with reflexive verbs (verbs that involve the subject acting upon itself) when specifying a particular part of the self to which the action is being done. For example, 'Ich wasche mich' (I wash myself) uses the accusative, but 'Ich wasche mir die Hände' (I wash my hands, literally 'I wash for myself the hands') uses the dative.

Describe the 'double dative' construction in German and provide an example.

German can employ a 'double dative' construction where two dative phrases appear in a sentence. The first dative expresses the speaker's commiseration or interest (similar to the Latin *dativus ethicus*), while the second dative names the actual object of the action. An example is 'Sei mir meinem Sohn(e) gnädig!' (For my sake, have mercy on my son!), where 'mir' (for me) and 'meinem Sohn(e)' (to my son) are both in the dative.

How do adjective endings change in the dative case in German, based on inflection type?

Adjective endings in the German dative case vary depending on the preceding word. They typically use 'weak inflection' (all '-en') when preceded by a definite article, 'mixed inflection' (all '-en') after an indefinite article, and 'strong inflection' (masculine '-em', feminine '-er', neuter '-em', plural '-en') when a quantity is indicated or no article is present.

What are the various uses of the dative case in Latin?

In Latin, the dative case (Dativus) has several distinct uses, including the dative of purpose (*Dativus finalis*), dative of benefit or harm (*Dativus commodi/incommodi*), possessive dative (*Dativus possessivus*), ethic dative (*Dativus ethicus*), and dative of agent (*Dativus auctoris*).

Explain the Latin *Dativus finalis* (dative of purpose) with an example.

The *Dativus finalis*, or dative of purpose, is used in Latin to denote the purpose or end goal of an action. An example is 'non scholae sed vitae' (we learn not for school, but for life), where 'scholae' and 'vitae' are in the dative to express purpose.

What is the *Dativus commodi (incommodi)* in Latin, and how is it used?

The *Dativus commodi (incommodi)* in Latin signifies an action performed for the benefit or against the disadvantage of someone. For instance, 'Graecis agros colere' means 'to till fields for Greeks', indicating benefit to the Greeks.

Describe the 'double dative' construction in Latin.

The 'double dative' in Latin combines the *Dativus commodi* and *Dativus finalis*. It is used to express both the person for whom something is done and the purpose it serves, such as 'tibi laetitiae' (to you for joy).

How does the *Dativus possessivus* (possessive dative) function in Latin?

The *Dativus possessivus*, or possessive dative, is used in Latin to indicate possession, typically appearing with a copula (a linking verb like 'to be'). For example, 'angelis alae sunt' literally translates to 'to the angels are wings', but is understood as 'angels have wings'.

What is the *Dativus ethicus* (ethic dative) in Latin, and what does it convey?

The *Dativus ethicus*, or ethic dative, is used in Latin to show that the person in the dative case is particularly concerned about or interested in the action being described. An example is 'Quid mihi Celsus agit?' (What is Celsus doing for me?), expressing the speaker's personal interest.

How is agency expressed using the dative case with the gerundive in Latin?

In Latin, the dative case expresses agency when the gerundive is used to convey obligation or necessity. For example, in 'haec nobis agenda sunt', 'nobis' (by us) is in the dative case, indicating that 'these things must be done by us'.

What is the Greek name for the dative case, and what are its main functions in Classical Greek?

The Greek name for the dative case is 'dotikē ptôsis'. In Classical Greek, it functions as the dative proper, indicating the indirect object, but also encompasses roles such as dative of purpose (*Dativus finalis*), dative of benefit or harm (*Dativus commodi sive incommodi*), dative of possession (*Dativus possessivus*), ethic dative (*Dativus ethicus*), dative of agent (*Dativus auctoris*), dative of instrument (*Dativus instrumenti*), dative of manner (*Dativus modi*), and dative of measurement (*Dativus mensurae*).

Provide an example of the *Dativus finalis* (dative of purpose) in Ancient Greek.

An example of the *Dativus finalis* in Ancient Greek is 'τῷ βασιλεῖ μάχομαι' (I fight for the king), where 'τῷ βασιλεῖ' (for the king) is in the dative case to express the purpose of fighting.

How is the *Dativus commodi sive incommodi* (dative of benefit or harm) used in Ancient Greek?

The *Dativus commodi sive incommodi* in Ancient Greek expresses the advantage or disadvantage of something for someone. For benefit, 'πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὐτῷ πονεῖ' means 'Every man toils for himself'. For harm, 'ἥδε ἡ ἡμέρα τοῖς Ἕλλησι μεγάλων κακῶν ἄρξει' means 'This day will be the beginning of great sorrows for the Greeks'.

Explain the *Dativus possessivus* (dative of possession) in Ancient Greek with an example.

The *Dativus possessivus* in Ancient Greek denotes the possessor of an object. An example is 'ἄλλοις μὲν γὰρ χρήματά ἐστι πολλὰ καὶ νῆες καὶ ἵπποι, ἡμῖν δὲ σύμμαχοι ἀγαθοί' (For others have a lot of money and ships and horses, but we have good allies), literally 'To others there is a lot of money...'.

What is the *Dativus ethicus* (ethic or polite dative) in Ancient Greek, and when is it typically used?

The *Dativus ethicus* in Ancient Greek signifies that the person or thing spoken of is regarded with interest by someone. It is mostly, if not exclusively, used with pronouns, hence also called the 'dative of pronouns'. An example is 'τούτῳ πάνυ μοι προσέχετε τὸν νοῦν' (Pay close attention to this, I beg you), where 'μοι' (I beg you) expresses the speaker's interest.

When is the *Dativus auctoris* (dative of agent) used in Classical Greek?

In Classical Greek, the *Dativus auctoris* is used to denote the doer of an action, most often with the perfect and pluperfect passive tenses, and with verbal adjectives ending in '-τέος'. While the agent is usually in the genitive after 'ὑπό', the dative is used in these specific constructions, such as 'πολλαὶ θεραπεῖαι τοῖς ἰατροῖς εὕρηνται' (Many cures have been discovered by doctors).

How does the *Dativus instrumenti* (dative of instrument) function in Ancient Greek?

The *Dativus instrumenti* in Ancient Greek is used to denote an instrument or means by which a certain action is performed, effectively serving as the instrumental case. An example is 'με κτείνει δόλῳ' (He kills me with a bait), where 'δόλῳ' (with a bait) indicates the instrument.

What are the definite articles in the Greek dative case for singular and plural forms?

In the Greek dative case, the definite articles are 'ΤΩΙ' (τῷ) for masculine and neuter singular, 'ΤΗΙ' (τῇ) for feminine singular, 'ΤΟΙΣ' (τοῖς) for masculine and neuter plural, and 'ΤΑΙΣ' (ταῖς) for feminine plural.

Does Modern Greek retain the dative case?

Strictly speaking, the dative case no longer exists in Modern Greek, except in a few fossilized expressions like 'δόξα τω Θεώ' (Glory to God) or 'εν τάξει' (all right). Its functions are now primarily expressed by the genitive case or by prepositional phrases.

How is the dative case used in Russian?

In Russian, the dative case indicates the indirect object of an action (e.g., to whom something is given, thrown, or read). It is also used for the goal of motion towards a person, typically with the preposition 'к' + dative case (e.g., 'К врачу' - to the doctor). Additionally, certain prepositions, like 'по' when meaning 'along', require their object to be in the dative case (e.g., 'По бокам' - along the sides).

List some specific uses of the dative case in Polish.

In Polish, the dative case is used after certain verbs (e.g., 'dziękować komuś' - to thank someone, 'pomóc komuś' - to help someone, 'wierzyć komuś' - to believe someone), in specific expressions (e.g., 'Jest mi zimno' - I'm cold), as a *dativus commodi* to indicate action for someone (e.g., 'Zbuduję temu człowiekowi dom' - I will build a house for this person), and when something is taken away or occurs to someone (e.g., 'Zdechł im pies' - Their dog died).

What factors influence noun and adjective endings in Slavic dative cases, and are there irregularities?

In Slavic languages, noun and adjective endings in the dative case are determined by grammatical function, gender, and number. However, endings may not always be obvious, and irregularities exist. For example, in Polish, 'syn' (son) becomes 'synowi' in the dative, while 'ojciec' (father) becomes 'ojcu', despite both being masculine singular nouns.

Which Baltic languages have a distinct dative case?

Both Lithuanian and Latvian possess a distinct dative case within their systems of nominal declensions.

How do Lithuanian nouns and adjectives inflect in the dative case?

Lithuanian nouns generally preserve Indo-European inflections well in the dative case (e.g., 'vaikas' -> 'vaikui' singular, 'vaikams' plural). Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings, which is a more recent development (e.g., 'tas geras vaikas' -> 'tam geram vaikui' singular).

What simplifications have occurred in the Latvian dative case compared to Lithuanian?

In Latvian, the dative case has undergone further simplifications, where the original masculine endings of both nouns and adjectives have been replaced with pronominal inflections (e.g., 'tas vīrs' -> 'tam vīram' singular). Additionally, the final 's' in all dative forms has been dropped, except for personal pronouns in the plural.

What is the main function of the dative case in Latvian and Lithuanian?

The main function of the dative case in both Latvian and Lithuanian is to mark the indirect object in a sentence, indicating the recipient of an action, such as 'aś duodu vyrui knygą' (I am giving a book to the man) in Lithuanian.

How is the dative case used with gerundives in Lithuanian?

In Lithuanian, the dative case can be used with gerundives to indicate an action that precedes or occurs simultaneously with the main action in a sentence. For example, 'jam įėjus, visi atsistojo' (when he walked in, everybody stood up), literally 'to him having walked in, all stood up'.

How do prepositions interact with the dative case in Latvian?

In Latvian, the dative case is taken by several prepositions in the singular and by all prepositions in the plural. This is due to peculiar historical changes in the language. For instance, 'bez tevis' (without thee) uses genitive in singular, but 'bez jums' (without you) uses dative in plural.

Dative Case Wiki: The Dative Deciphered: Unveiling the Nuances of Grammatical Relation

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What is Dative?

The Recipient's Role

In grammar, the dative case is a grammatical case primarily employed to designate the recipient or beneficiary of an action. Consider the Latin example: "Maria Jacobo potum dedit," which translates to "Maria gave Jacob a drink." Here, the dative case explicitly marks "Jacob" as the indirect object, the one to whom the drink is given.

Beyond Giving: Diverse Functions

While often associated with "giving," the dative case exhibits a broader range of functions across various languages. For instance, in Scottish Gaelic and Irish, traditional grammars utilize "dative case" to describe the prepositional case-marking of nouns that follow simple prepositions and the definite article. Furthermore, in languages such as Georgian and Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), the dative case can even mark the subject of a sentence, a phenomenon known as the dative construction. In Hindi, this construction is remarkably versatile, applicable to any verb in any tense or mood.

Historical Persistence

The dative case was a prominent feature in early Indo-European languages and has remarkably endured in several modern branches, including Balto-Slavic, Germanic, and Albanian, among others. Its presence is also observed in similar forms within various non-Indo-European language families, such as the Uralic languages. Interestingly, in some linguistic evolutions, the dative case has absorbed the functions of other cases that have since become obsolete. Ancient Greek, for example, saw its dative case encompass the roles of the Proto-Indo-European locative and instrumental cases, in addition to its original dative functions.

Etymology

Roots in Giving and Sending

The term "dative" originates from the Latin phrase cāsus datīvus, which literally translates to "case for giving." This Latin term itself is a direct translation of the Greek δοτικὴ πτῶσις, dotikē ptôsis, meaning "inflection for giving." This etymological connection clearly highlights the case's primary function as indicating the recipient of an action.

An Epistolary Connection

The ancient Greek grammarian Dionysius Thrax, in his seminal work "Art of Grammar," also referred to the dative case as epistaltikḗ, meaning "for sending (a letter)." This term is derived from the verb epistéllō, "send to," a word that shares its linguistic root with the modern English term "epistle." This secondary etymological link further reinforces the dative's association with direction and transmission to a recipient.

English

A Fading System

Old English once possessed a robust dative case system. However, during the Middle English period, this intricate case system gradually diminished. The accusative and dative cases of pronouns merged into a singular "oblique case," which also came to be used with all prepositions. This historical conflation has led most contemporary grammarians to consider the "accusative" and "dative" labels largely obsolete when referring to modern English, often preferring the more encompassing term "objective" for the oblique case.

Relics and Expressions

Despite its general decline, the dative case can still be observed in a few fossilized expressions and "relic" pronouns in modern English. A notable example is "methinks," meaning "it seems to me." This phrase directly descends from an Old English construction involving the dative case of the personal pronoun. Similarly, the modern objective case pronoun "whom" is derived from the Old English dative pronoun "hwām," though it also absorbed functions of the Old English accusative "hwone." The object forms of personal pronouns like "him" (from Old English dative him, distinct from accusative hine) and "her" (from dative hire, distinct from accusative hīe) are also remnants of Old English datives, now serving broader objective functions.

Modern Indirect Objects

In contemporary English, the function of the indirect object, often associated with the dative, is typically expressed in two primary ways:

**Placement:** The indirect object can be positioned directly between the verb and the direct object. For example: "He gave me a book" or "He wrote me a poem."
**Prepositional Phrase:** Alternatively, the indirect object can be conveyed using a prepositional phrase, most commonly with "to." For example: "He gave a book to me."

It is important to note that in these modern constructions, the noun or pronoun itself does not inflect for a distinct dative case, but its syntactic role fulfills a dative-like function.

German

Marking the Indirect Object

In German (Dativ), the dative case is fundamentally used to mark the indirect object of a sentence. This is a core aspect of German grammar, where nouns and pronouns inflect to indicate their grammatical role. For example:

Ich schickte dem Mann(e) das Buch. (Masculine)
(Literally: I sent "to the man" the book.)

Ich gab der Frau den Stift zurück. (Feminine)
(Literally: I gave "to the woman" the pencil back.)

Ich überreiche dem Kind(e) ein Geschenk. (Neuter)
(Literally: I hand "to the child" a present.)

The parenthetical `(e)` after `Mann` and `Kind` signifies a now largely archaic `-e` ending for certain dative nouns, surviving mainly in fixed phrases like `zu Hause` (at home) or `am Tage` (during the day).

Dative-Governing Prepositions

A specific set of German prepositions invariably requires their objects to be in the dative case. These include: `aus` (from), `außer` (out of), `bei` (at, near), `entgegen` (against), `gegenüber` (opposite), `mit` (with), `nach` (after, to), `seit` (since), `von` (from), and `zu` (at, in, to).

Additionally, some "two-way" prepositions can take either the dative or accusative case, depending on whether they indicate a static location (dative) or direction of movement (accusative). Examples include `an` (at), `auf` (on), `in` (in, into), `hinter` (behind), `neben` (beside), `über` (over), `unter` (under), `vor` (in front of), and `zwischen` (among, between).

Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch(e). (Dative: The book is lying on the table - static location)
Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch. (Accusative: I put the book onto the table - direction)

Colloquial Shifts and Dative Verbs

In colloquial German, there's a common tendency to use the dative with prepositions that formally require the genitive, such as `trotz` (in spite of) or `wegen` (because of). For instance, "because of the weather" is often heard as `wegen dem Wetter` (dative) instead of the formally correct `wegen des Wetters` (genitive).

Furthermore, certain German verbs inherently demand a dative direct object. Common examples include `antworten` (to answer), `danken` (to thank), `gefallen` (to please), `folgen` (to follow), `glauben` (to believe), `helfen` (to help), and `raten` (to advise). For these verbs, the object receiving the action is in the dative:


Meine Freunde helfen mir. (My friends help me.)

These verbs cannot form a normal passive construction with an accusative object. Instead, an "impersonal passive" is used: `Mir wird geholfen` (literally: "To me is helped").

Declension of Articles and Adjectives

All German articles undergo changes in the dative case, as illustrated below:

Definite and Indefinite Articles in Dative Case
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Definite article	dem	der	dem	den
Indefinite article	einem	einer	einem	Ø (einigen)
Negative articles	keinem	keiner	keinem	keinen

Adjective endings also inflect in the dative case, with three main possibilities: weak inflection (after definite articles), mixed inflection (after indefinite articles), and strong inflection (when no article or a quantity is indicated).

Adjective Endings in Dative Case
Adj. in dative case	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Weak inflection	-en	-en	-en	-en
Mixed inflection	-en	-en	-en	-en
Strong inflection	-em	-er	-em	-en

Latin

Multifaceted Dative Uses

In Latin, the dative case (Dativus) serves a variety of functions beyond simply marking the indirect object. Its versatility allows for nuanced expressions of purpose, benefit, possession, and even agency.

Dativus finalis (Dative of Purpose): Indicates the purpose or end goal of an action.
- non scholae sed vitae – "[we learn] not for school, but for life"
- auxilio vocare – "to call for help"
Dativus commodi (incommodi) (Dative of Advantage/Disadvantage): Expresses an action performed for (commodi) or against (incommodi) someone.
- Graecis agros colere – "to till fields for Greeks"
- A combination of Dativus commodi and finalis results in a "double dative": tibi laetitiae "to you for joy."
Dativus possessivus (Possessive Dative): Denotes possession, typically used with a copula (a form of "to be").
- angelis alae sunt – literally "to (or for) the angels are wings," commonly translated as "angels have wings."
Dativus ethicus (Ethic Dative): Indicates that the person in the dative is particularly concerned or interested in the action, often conveying a sense of emotional involvement. It is usually a pronoun.
- Quid mihi Celsus agit? – "What is Celsus doing for me?" (expressing the speaker's keen interest).
Dativus auctoris (Dative of Agent): Used to express agency, particularly with the gerundive when it conveys obligation or necessity.
- haec nobis agenda sunt – "these things must be done by us."

Greek

Ancient Greek Dative

In Classical Greek, the dative case (δοτικὴ πτῶσις) possessed a rich array of functions, inheriting roles from Proto-Indo-European cases that had merged into it. Beyond its primary role as the indirect object, it expressed various semantic relationships.

Dativus finalis (Dative of Purpose): Denotes the purpose of an action.
- τῷ βασιλεῖ μάχομαι – "I fight for the king"
Dativus commodi (incommodi) (Dative of Benefit/Harm): Expresses advantage or disadvantage for someone.
- Benefit: πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὑτῷ πονεῖ – "Every man toils for himself"
- Harm: ἥδε ἡ ἡμέρα τοῖς Ἕλλησι μεγάλων κακῶν ἄρξει – "This day will be the beginning of great sorrows for the Greeks (i.e., for their disadvantage)"
Dativus possessivus (Dative of Possession): Indicates the possessor of an object, often translated with "to have."
- ἄλλοις μὲν γὰρ χρήματά ἐστι πολλὰ καὶ νῆες καὶ ἵπποι, ἡμῖν δὲ ξύμμαχοι ἀγαθοί. – "For others have a lot of money and ships and horses, but we have good allies (i.e., To others there is a lot of money...)"
Dativus ethicus (Ethic Dative): Signifies a person's interest or concern in the action, primarily with pronouns.
- τούτῳ πάνυ μοι προσέχετε τὸν νοῦν. – "Pay close attention to this, I beg you"
Dativus auctoris (Dative of Agent): Denotes the doer of an action, especially with perfect and pluperfect passive verbs or verbal adjectives in -τέος.
- πολλαὶ θεραπεῖαι τοῖς ἰατροῖς εὕρηνται. – "Many cures have been discovered by doctors."
Dativus instrumenti (Dative of Instrument): Indicates the instrument or means by which an action is performed.
- με κτείνει δόλῳ – "He kills me with a bait (i.e., by means of a bait)."
Dativus modi (Dative of Manner): Describes the manner or way something happened.
- νόσῳ ὕστερον ἀποθανόντα. – "having died of (from) a disease."
Dativus mensurae (Dative of Measurement): Denotes the measurement of difference.
- τῇ κεφαλῇ μείζονα. – "taller by a head."

The definite articles in the Greek dative case are:

Definite Article in Ancient Greek Dative
	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine
Singular	ΤΩΙ (τῷ)		ΤΗΙ (τῇ)
Plural	ΤΟΙΣ (τοῖς)		ΤΑΙΣ (ταῖς)

Modern Greek Evolution

In Modern Greek, the dative case, in its strict inflected form, has largely ceased to exist. Its functions have been absorbed by other cases, primarily the genitive, or are now expressed through prepositional phrases. Only a few fossilized expressions retain the dative form, serving as linguistic relics of its past prominence. Examples include δόξα τω Θεώ (from the ecclesiastical τῷ Θεῷ δόξα, "Glory to God") or εν τάξει (ἐν τάξει, literally "in order," meaning "all right" or "OK").

Slavic

Russian Dative Functions

In Russian, the dative case is crucial for indicating the indirect object of an action, signifying to whom or for whom something is given, thrown, or read. It also plays a role in expressing motion towards a person, where it is used with the preposition к (k) instead of the accusative. For example, К врачу means "to the doctor."

Furthermore, the dative case is obligatory with certain prepositions when conveying specific ideas. For instance, when the preposition по (po) means "along," its object is always in the dative case, as in По бокам, meaning "along the sides."

Polish Dative Applications

Other Slavic languages, such as Polish, utilize the dative case in similar yet distinct ways:

With specific verbs: `dziękować komuś` ("to thank someone"), `pomóc komuś` ("to help someone"), `wierzyć komuś` ("to believe someone").
In set expressions: `Czy podoba ci się piosenka?` ("Do you like the song?"), `Jest mi zimno` ("I'm cold"), `Będzie wam trudniej...` ("It will be more difficult for you guys").
Dativus commodi: To indicate an action performed for someone: `Zbuduję temu człowiekowi dom` ("I will build a house for this person").
When something is taken away or occurs to someone: `Zdechł im pies` ("Their dog died"), `Zabrali mu komputer` ("They took away his computer"), `Coś mi się przypomniało` ("I just remembered something").

Serbo-Croatian and Inflectional Complexity

The Serbo-Croatian language also employs various dative constructions, including Dativus finalis (purpose), Dativus commodi/incommodi (benefit/harm), Dativus possessivus (possession), Dativus ethicus (ethical dative), and Dativus auctoris (agent). For example, `Izgleda mi okej` ("It seems okay to me").

A notable characteristic across Slavic languages, unusual in many other Indo-European branches, is the significant variation in noun and adjective endings based on grammatical function, gender, and number. This can lead to complex inflectional patterns where the dative ending may not be immediately obvious. For instance, in Polish, both `syn` ("son") and `ojciec` ("father") are masculine singular nouns, yet their dative forms are `synowi` and `ojcu`, respectively.

Baltic

Preserving Indo-European Roots

Both Lithuanian and Latvian, as Baltic languages, maintain a distinct dative case within their nominal declension systems. Lithuanian nouns, in particular, exhibit a strong preservation of Indo-European inflections in the dative case. For example, o-stems like `vaikas` become singular `vaikui` and plural `vaikams` in the dative. Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings, which is thought to be a more recent linguistic development.

Latvian Simplifications

Latvian's dative case has undergone further simplifications. The original masculine endings for both nouns and adjectives have been replaced by pronominal inflections. For instance, `tas vīrs` becomes singular `tam vīram` and plural `tiem vīriem`. Additionally, the final "s" in most dative forms has been dropped, with personal pronouns in the plural (e.g., `mums` "to us," `jums` "to you") being a notable exception. Colloquially, this final "s" is also often omitted in Lithuanian dative forms.

Gerundives and Prepositions

The primary function of the dative case in both Latvian and Lithuanian is to render the indirect object in a sentence. For example, in Lithuanian, `aš duodu vyrui knygą` and in Latvian, `es dodu [duodu] vīram grāmatu` both mean "I am giving a book to the man."

Beyond this, the dative case can be used with gerundives to indicate an action that precedes or is simultaneous with the main action. For example, in Lithuanian, `jam įėjus, visi atsistojo` translates to "when he walked in, everybody stood up" (literally: "to him having walked in, all stood up"). While modern standard Lithuanian does not require the dative with prepositions, many dialects frequently do. In Latvian, however, several prepositions take the dative in the singular, and all prepositions take the dative in the plural due to historical linguistic changes.

Armenian

Constructing the Dative

In modern Eastern Armenian, the dative case is formed by appending any article to the genitive form of a noun. For example, starting with `շուն` (šun, "dog"):

Genitive: `շան` (šan, "of the dog; dog's") with no articles.
Definite Dative: `շանը` or `շանն` (šanə or šann, "to the dog") with definite articles (the latter if preceding a vowel).
Indefinite Dative: `մի շան` (mi šan, "to a dog") with the indefinite article.
Possessive Dative: `շանս` (šans, "to my dog") with the 1st person possessive article.

While `–ին` is often perceived as the standard dative suffix due to its productivity, it is merely the common genitive suffix `–ի` combined with the definite article `–ն`. The dative case, however, also encompasses indefinite objects, which will not feature the `–ին` suffix.

Indicating Recipient and Time

The primary function of dative marking in Armenian is to indicate the receiving end of an action, typically the indirect object that would be preceded by "to" in English. With verbs of "giving" (e.g., `give`, `donate`, `offer`, `deliver`, `sell`, `bring`), the dative marks the recipient. For communicative verbs (e.g., `tell`, `say`, `advise`, `explain`, `ask`, `answer`), the dative identifies the listener. Other verbs whose indirect objects are marked by the dative include `show`, `reach`, `look`, and `approach`.

Eastern Armenian also employs the dative case to specify the time of an event, mirroring the English use of the preposition "at," as in "Meet me at nine o'clock."

Hindustani

Pronouns and Postpositions

Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) features a true dative case for pronouns. For nouns, however, the dative case is constructed using the dative case-marker (postposition) `को` / `کو` (ko) appended to nouns in their oblique case. Hindustani pronouns also have an oblique case, allowing for alternative dative pronoun constructions by combining the oblique pronoun with the `ko` case-marker, resulting in two synonymous sets of dative pronouns.

The table below illustrates pronouns in their nominative and dative forms. Note that Hindustani lacks distinct third-person pronouns; demonstrative pronouns fulfill this role.

Hindustani Pronouns: Nominative and Dative Cases
Case	Personal Pronouns					Non-Personal Pronouns
	1st Person		2nd Person			Demonstrative				Relative		Interrogative
	1st Person		Intimate	Neutral	Formal	Proximal (Sg)	Proximal (Pl)	Distal (Sg)	Distal (Pl)	Relative		Interrogative		Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	मैं میں ma͠i	हम ہم ham	तू تو tū	तुम تم tum	आप آپ āp	यह یر yah	ये یے ye	वह ور vah	वे وے ve	जो جو jo		कौन کون kaun
Dative	मुझे مجھے mujhe	हमें ہمیں hamẽ	तुझे تجے tujhe	तुम्हें تمہیں tumhẽ	आपको آپ کو āp ko	इसे اسے ise	इन्हें انہیں inhẽ	उसे اسے use	उन्हें انہیں unhẽ	जिसे جسے jise	जिन्हें جنہیں jinhẽ	किसे کیسے kise	किन्हें کنہیں kinhẽ

Noun Declension with `ko`

The oblique case of Hindustani nouns, by itself, carries no inherent meaning. It is only when the dative case-marker `को` / `کو` (ko) is added that the combination of the oblique case and the case-marker acquires the function of the dative case. The table below demonstrates this for the nouns "boy" and "girl."

Hindustani Nouns: Nominative and Dative Cases
Case	boy		girl
Case	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	लड़का لڑکا laṛkā	लड़के لڑکے laṛke	लड़की لڑکی laṛkī	लड़कियां لڑکیاں laṛkiyā̃
Dative	लड़के को لڑکے کو laṛke-ko	लड़कों को لڑکوں کو laṛkõ-ko	लड़की को لڑکی کو laṛkī-ko	लड़कियों को لڑکیوں کو laṛkiyõ-ko

Dative Constructions as Subjects

A fascinating aspect of Hindustani grammar is the use of the dative case to mark the subject of a sentence, a phenomenon termed "dative construction" or "quirky subjects." This is evident in examples where a dative pronoun successfully binds a subject-oriented anaphora, demonstrating its subjecthood.

मुझे

مجھے

mujhe_i

I.DAT

अपने

اپنے

apne_i

REFL.MASC.PL

सभी

سبھی

sabhī

all.NOM

रिश्तेदार

رشتہ دار

rishtedār

relatives.MASC.PL

पसंद

پسند

pasand

like

हैं

ہیں

hãĩ

be.PRS.MASC.PL

'I like all my relatives'

मुझे

مجھے

mujhe_i

I.DAT

अपने

اپنے

apne_i

REFL.MASC.PL

काम

کام

kām

work.NOM

करने

کرنے

karne

do.INF.PTCP.MASC.PL

हैं

ہیں

hãĩ

be.PRS.MASC.PL

'I have/want to do my work.'

Sanskrit

The Fourth Case: Indirect Object and Worship

In Sanskrit, the dative case is formally recognized as the "fourth case" (chaturthi-vibhakti) within the standard declension of nouns. Its primary application is to denote the indirect object of a verb, clearly identifying the recipient of an action. For example:


puruṣo bhāryāyai dadāti — The man gives everything to his wife.

Beyond this, the dative case in Sanskrit also serves to indicate the recipient of worship or homage, highlighting a spiritual or reverential relationship:


namo buddhāya — Homage to the Buddha.

This dual function underscores the dative's role in expressing both tangible and abstract forms of giving or direction towards a beneficiary.

Expressing Purpose

The dative case in Sanskrit can also effectively convey the purpose or intention behind an action. This usage provides insight into the motivation or goal of the subject's activity:

yuddhāyāgacchāmīti bhaṇati vīraḥ — The hero says, "I come for battle."

Here, `yuddhāyā` (for battle) is in the dative case, clearly stating the purpose of the hero's arrival. This demonstrates the dative's capacity to articulate not just who receives an action, but also the underlying reason for it.

Non-Indo-European

Hungarian Dative

In Hungarian, the dative case functions similarly to many other languages by indicating the indirect object of a verb. It employs two suffixes, `-nak` and `-nek`, chosen based on vowel harmony rules. For instance, `Dánielnek adtam ezt a könyvet` means "I gave this book to Dániel." Personal dative pronouns follow the `-nek` pattern (e.g., `nekem`, `neked`). This case also expresses "for" in certain contexts, such as "I bought a gift for Mother." It's important to distinguish this from the attributive or possessive case, which also uses `nak/nek` endings in possessive constructions but serves a different grammatical role.

Finnish Allative

Finnish does not possess a distinct dative case. However, the allative case effectively fulfills a similar role, extending beyond its primary meaning of directional movement (i.e., going towards someone or something). For example, `He lahjoittivat kaikki rahansa köyhille` translates to "They donated all their money to the poor." This demonstrates how a different grammatical case can functionally overlap with the dative, indicating a recipient or beneficiary. Estonian exhibits a similar linguistic characteristic.

Tsez Dative/Lative

In Northeast Caucasian languages like Tsez, the dative case often merges functions with the lative case, marking the direction of an action. While some linguists consider them distinct, their suffixes are identical. This dative/lative case is also used to indicate possession, as Tsez lacks a verb equivalent to "to have." For example:

Кидбехъор

kidbe-qo-r

girl:OBL-POSS-DAT/LAT

кIетIу

kʼetʼcu

cat:ABS

зовси.

zow-si

be:PST-PST

"The girl had a cat."

Verbs of perception or emotion (e.g., "see," "know," "love," "want") also require the logical subject to be in the dative/lative case. In such instances, the "pure" dative/lative, without its possessive suffix, is used:

ГIалир

ʼAli-r

Ali-DAT/LAT

ПатIи

Patʼci

Fatima:[II]:ABS

йетих.

y-eti-x

II-love-PRES

"Ali loves Fatima."

Turkish Dative

The dative case (yönelme durumu) in Turkish is formed by adding the suffixes `-e` or `-a` to the end of a noun, adhering to vowel harmony rules. It answers questions like `neye?` (to what?), `kime?` (to whom?), and `nereye?` (to where?). The dative is used for objects, often indirect, but sometimes direct objects that would be considered direct in English:

Güneşin

Güneşin

sun's

batışına

batışına

at-its-sinking

bak.

bak.

look

"Look at the sunset."

It also indicates `whither`, or the place `to which`, roughly corresponding to English "to" and "into," or "in" when it implies movement into a location:

Birayı

Birayı

the-beer

buzdolabına

buzdolabına

into-icebox

koy.

koy.

put

"Put the beer in(to) the fridge."

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References

Bhatt, Rajesh (2003). Experiencer subjects. Handout from MIT course âStructure of the Modern Indo-Aryan Languagesâ.

Case in Hindi (Mark Spencer) [2005]

Ignatius Singer, 'Simplified Grammar of the Hungarian Language', 1882.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Dative case Wikipedia page

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The Dative Deciphered

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Dative? ℹ️

🎁 The Recipient's Role

🌐 Beyond Giving: Diverse Functions

🕰️ Historical Persistence

Etymology 📜

🏛️ Roots in Giving and Sending

✉️ An Epistolary Connection

English 🇬🇧

📉 A Fading System

💎 Relics and Expressions

🔄 Modern Indirect Objects

German 🇩🇪

🎯 Marking the Indirect Object

🔗 Dative-Governing Prepositions

🗣️ Colloquial Shifts and Dative Verbs

📝 Declension of Articles and Adjectives

Latin 🏛️

🎯 Multifaceted Dative Uses

Greek 🇬🇷

📜 Ancient Greek Dative

📉 Modern Greek Evolution

Slavic 🇷🇺🇵🇱

➡️ Russian Dative Functions

🛠️ Polish Dative Applications

🧩 Serbo-Croatian and Inflectional Complexity

Baltic 🇱🇹🇱🇻

🌳 Preserving Indo-European Roots

简化 Latvian Simplifications

⏳ Gerundives and Prepositions

Armenian 🇦🇲

➕ Constructing the Dative

🗣️ Indicating Recipient and Time

Hindustani 🇮🇳🇵🇰

📝 Pronouns and Postpositions

👦👧 Noun Declension with `ko`

🤔 Dative Constructions as Subjects

Sanskrit 🕉️

🙏 The Fourth Case: Indirect Object and Worship

⚔️ Expressing Purpose

Non-Indo-European 🌍

🇭🇺 Hungarian Dative

🇫🇮 Finnish Allative

🏔️ Tsez Dative/Lative

🇹🇷 Turkish Dative

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Dative?

The Recipient's Role

Beyond Giving: Diverse Functions

Historical Persistence

Etymology

Roots in Giving and Sending

An Epistolary Connection

English

A Fading System

Relics and Expressions

Modern Indirect Objects

German

Marking the Indirect Object

Dative-Governing Prepositions

Colloquial Shifts and Dative Verbs

Declension of Articles and Adjectives

Latin

Multifaceted Dative Uses

Greek

Ancient Greek Dative

Modern Greek Evolution

Slavic

Russian Dative Functions

Polish Dative Applications

Serbo-Croatian and Inflectional Complexity

Baltic

Preserving Indo-European Roots

Latvian Simplifications

Gerundives and Prepositions

Armenian

Constructing the Dative

Indicating Recipient and Time

Hindustani

Pronouns and Postpositions

Noun Declension with `ko`

Dative Constructions as Subjects

Sanskrit

The Fourth Case: Indirect Object and Worship

Expressing Purpose

Non-Indo-European

Hungarian Dative

Finnish Allative

Tsez Dative/Lative

Turkish Dative

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice