When did the depiction of Jesus in pictorial form begin, and what was the early Christian stance on aniconism?

The depiction of Jesus in pictorial form dates back to early Christian art and architecture. Within the ante-Nicene period, the practice of aniconism, which is the avoidance of religious images, was rejected by early Christians.

What is the conventional image of Jesus that became established over time, and when did it emerge?

The conventional image of Jesus, characterized by a fully bearded appearance with long hair, began to emerge around AD 300. However, this depiction did not become firmly established until the 6th century in Eastern Christianity, and it took even longer to become widespread in the West.

What advantage does the conventional image of Jesus, along with the cruciform halo, offer in artwork?

The conventional image of Jesus, featuring a beard and long hair, along with the use of a cruciform halo (a halo with a cross), offers the advantage of being easily recognizable. These visual cues help distinguish Jesus from other figures within a composition.

How do depictions of Jesus tend to reflect the culture in which they are created?

Images of Jesus often display ethnic characteristics that are similar to those of the culture in which the artwork is produced. This means that depictions can vary significantly based on the geographical and cultural context of the artist.

What are some of the images believed by some faithful to be historically authentic or authoritative?

Some believers hold that certain images of Jesus are historically authentic or have gained authoritative status through Church tradition. Prominent examples include the Shroud of Turin, the Image of Edessa, and the Veil of Veronica, though the latter two were more widely known in medieval times.

What was the ruling of the Synod of Elvira regarding images in churches?

The regional Synod of Elvira, held in Spain in 306 AD, decreed in its 36th canon that no images should be placed in churches. This ruling stated that 'It has been decreed that no pictures be had in the churches, and that which is worshipped or adored be not painted on the walls'.

What historical events or movements led to controversy or the banning of Jesus's images?

The representation of Jesus was controversial in the early period, as seen with the Synod of Elvira. Later, Byzantine iconoclasm in the Eastern church led to the banning and destruction of Christ's images for a time. During the Protestant Reformation, particularly among followers of John Calvin, images of Christ were considered idolatrous and were removed.

What is the current practice of most Evangelical Protestants regarding representations of Jesus in their places of worship?

Due to their interpretation of the second of the Ten Commandments, most Evangelical Protestants still avoid displaying representations of Jesus in their places of worship.

What physical descriptions of Jesus are provided in the canonical Gospels or the Acts of the Apostles?

The canonical Gospels do not contain any physical description of Jesus, other than references to him wearing tzitzit (tassels on a tallit). The Acts of the Apostles mentions Jesus manifesting as a 'light from heaven' that blinded Paul, but without providing specific physical details.

How does the Book of Revelation describe a vision of Jesus, and what is the significance of this description?

The Book of Revelation describes a vision of 'someone like a Son of Man' with white hair, fiery eyes, feet like burnt bronze, and a face like the sun. However, this description is generally restricted to illustrations of the book itself, and the scripture does not confirm if this spiritual form resembled Jesus's physical appearance during his earthly life.

What was the prevailing Jewish attitude towards figure art during Jesus's lifetime and the decades immediately following?

During Jesus's lifetime and the subsequent decades, many Jews interpreted the commandment against graven images (Exodus 20:4-6) as a prohibition against any depiction of humans or animals. Consequently, figure art was not produced for or by Jewish communities in Judea and Galilee during that period.

When did attitudes towards figure art change within some Jewish communities, and what is an early example?

Attitudes towards the interpretation of the commandment against graven images evolved over centuries. By the third century AD, some Jewish communities began producing figure art, with the earliest known examples being the frescos in the Dura-Europos synagogue, dating from around 240 AD, which depict scenes from the Hebrew Bible.

How did early Christian art develop during the period of Roman persecution?

During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily created in secret and often used ambiguous imagery. This was partly due to the large number of early Christians with Jewish origins and the need to differentiate from sophisticated pagan imagery of gods.

Which early Church Fathers expressed disapproval of portrayals of Jesus in images?

Several early Church Fathers, including Irenaeus (d. c. 202), Clement of Alexandria (d. 215), Lactantius (c. 240–c. 320), and Eusebius of Caesarea (d. c. 339), disapproved of the portrayal of Jesus in images.

What are some of the earliest surviving examples of Christian art, and where were they found?

The earliest surviving Christian art dates from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries and is found on the walls of tombs belonging to wealthy Christians in the catacombs of Rome. Literary evidence suggests that panel icons may have existed, but like most classical painting, they have not survived.

What were some of the early indirect symbolic representations of Jesus used in Christian art?

Initially, Jesus was represented indirectly through pictograms such as the ichthys (fish), the peacock, or an anchor. The staurogram, a cross-like symbol, also appears to have been an early representation of the crucified Jesus within sacred texts.

Describe the 'Good Shepherd' image and its potential significance in early Christian art.

The image of 'The Good Shepherd' depicted a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep. This was a common representation in early Christian art and likely did not refer to the historical Jesus at the time. It continues the classical Kriophoros ('ram-bearer') figure and may also represent the Shepherd of Hermas, a significant Christian literary work from the 2nd century.

What is considered the oldest known portrait of Jesus, and what did it depict?

The oldest known portrait of Jesus, discovered in Syria and dated to approximately 235 AD, portrays him as a beardless young man with an authoritative and dignified bearing. He is shown with short-cropped hair and wearing a tunic and pallium, which was common male attire in Greco-Roman society.

What were some differing theological views on Jesus's physical appearance in early Christianity?

Some Christians believed Jesus should have possessed the beautiful appearance of a classical hero. Conversely, Church Fathers like Justin Martyr and Tertullian, referencing Isaiah 53:2, suggested Christ's appearance was unremarkable. Later thinkers like Jerome and Augustine argued that Jesus must have been ideally beautiful.

How did the Edict of Milan in 313 AD influence the depiction of Jesus in art?

Following the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity and granted it imperial favor, new depictions of Jesus emerged, portraying him as 'Christ the King.' These images adopted the costume and poses of Imperial iconography, developing into various forms of 'Christ in Majesty.'

What is the 'Traditio Legis' image, and what type of depiction did it initially use?

The 'Traditio Legis' image is an early depiction that gradually showed Jesus becoming older. Initially, it used the type of a youthful 'intellectual wunderkind,' drawing from classical images of philosophers.

By the 5th century, what changes occurred in the depiction of Jesus, particularly in the Eastern Empire?

By the 5th century, the image of Jesus with a beard and long hair, often accompanied by a cruciform halo, became dominant, especially in the Eastern Empire. This contrasted with earlier depictions and began to solidify the conventional appearance.

How did the depiction of Jesus change in the mosaic cycle at Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna?

In the mosaic cycle at Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna (c. 520 AD), Jesus is depicted as beardless throughout the scenes of his ministry. However, in the scenes depicting the Passion, he is shown with a beard.

What is the significance of the 'Good Shepherd' image in later Christian art, such as in Santi Cosma e Damiano?

The 'Good Shepherd' image, now clearly identified as Christ and often depicted with a halo and rich robes, continued to be represented in later Christian art. Examples include the apse mosaic in Santi Cosma e Damiano in Rome, where the twelve apostles are shown as twelve sheep below an imperial Jesus.

When did the bearded depiction of Jesus become standard in the East, and how did the West differ?

The bearded depiction of Jesus became the standard in the Eastern Church by the 6th century. In contrast, the Western Church, particularly in northern Europe, continued to use a mix of bearded and unbearded depictions for several more centuries, with clean-shaven Jesuses remaining common until the 12th century.

What criticism did Michelangelo face regarding his depiction of Christ in the Sistine Chapel's 'Last Judgment'?

Michelangelo faced criticism during the Counter-Reformation climate in Rome for depicting Christ as clean-shaven in his 'Last Judgment' fresco. This depiction, which adapted classical sculptures of Apollo, was considered too far removed from the established convention of a bearded Christ.

What is the significance of the Image of Edessa and the Shroud of Turin in relation to Jesus's depictions?

The Image of Edessa (also known as the Mandylion) and the Shroud of Turin are believed by some to be miraculous images that authentically show Jesus's appearance. Scholars like Paul Vignon suggested that these images influenced the standardization of Jesus's iconography, particularly the 'Christ Pantocrator' icons, due to their availability to artists.

How did the Franciscans influence the portrayal of Jesus starting in the 13th century?

Beginning in the 13th century, the Franciscans shifted the portrayal of Jesus in the West from a powerful 'Kyrios' image to one emphasizing humility. They focused on Jesus's nativity and crucifixion, introducing a wider range of emotions into his depiction, which had a significant cultural impact.

What artistic trends emerged during the Renaissance concerning the depiction of Jesus?

During the Renaissance, artists like Giotto, Fra Angelico, and Leonardo da Vinci developed images of Jesus focusing on ideal human beauty. Some depictions also drew inspiration from classical sculpture, though Michelangelo's clean-shaven Christ in the Sistine Chapel was controversial for deviating from the established bearded convention.

How did the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation affect the production of Jesus's imagery?

The Protestant Reformation initially led to the violent rejection and destruction of religious images, viewing them as idolatrous. However, Protestant art later accepted images in contexts like book illustrations. The Catholic Counter-Reformation reaffirmed the importance of art for devotion and encouraged the production of numerous new images of Jesus, continuing the traditional depiction.

What criticism did Thomas Browne raise in the 17th century regarding depictions of Jesus?

In the 17th century, Thomas Browne, in his work 'Pseudodoxia Epidemica,' criticized depictions of Jesus with long hair. He argued against the idea that Jesus wore long hair due to being a Nazirite, pointing out that Jesus drank wine and interacted with the dead, which might contradict certain Nazirite vows.

What new types of depictions of Jesus gained attention in the late 19th and 20th centuries?

In the late 19th century, Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph of the Shroud of Turin brought renewed attention to miraculous images. In the 20th century, the Divine Mercy image, based on Faustina Kowalska's visions, became widely popular among Roman Catholics and Anglicans.

What was the first cinematic portrayal of Jesus, and how did subsequent films depict him?

The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 French film 'La Passion du Christ,' which lasted five minutes. Subsequent cinematic portrayals have generally followed the standard Western depiction of Jesus with a beard, resembling traditional images.

What was the outcome of the forensic reconstruction of Jesus's face in 2001, and what did it suggest?

In 2001, a forensic reconstruction based on a first-century Jewish skull suggested Jesus had a broad face and large nose, differing from traditional Western art. This reconstruction, using forensic anthropology, indicated Jesus likely had olive-colored skin, short, curly hair, and a short beard, resembling a typical Galilean Semite.

What is the significance of the 'Christ Pantocrator' image, particularly regarding its halo?

The 'Christ Pantocrator' image, often seen in Byzantine art, frequently features a halo in the form of a cross (cruciform halo). This distinctive halo is used exclusively for Jesus and the persons of the Trinity, helping to identify him within religious artwork.

How do Eastern icons differ from Western art in their approach to perspective and realism?

While Western art increasingly aimed for realism, Eastern icons traditionally exhibit a lower regard for perspective. Alterations in size and proportion in Eastern icons are intentional, designed to convey spiritual meaning beyond earthly reality.

What are some common narrative scenes from the Life of Christ depicted in art?

Common narrative scenes include the Nativity, Adoration of the Shepherds and Magi, Finding in the Temple, Baptism of Jesus, Crucifixion, Descent from the Cross, and the Last Judgment.

What are some examples of devotional images of Jesus?

Devotional images include the Madonna and Child, Christ in Majesty, Christ Pantocrator, the Sacred Heart, Pietà (mother and dead son), Lamb of God, Man of Sorrows, and Pensive Christ.

How do depictions of Jesus in the Coptic and Ethiopian Churches reflect local characteristics?

The Coptic Church of Egypt and the Ethiopian Church, which separated from the Coptic tradition, have distinctive depictions of Jesus. These often reflect the local racial characteristics of their respective populations, with the Ethiopian Church, in particular, showing Jesus and other biblical figures with Ethiopian features.

What is the 'Alexamenos graffito,' and why is it significant?

The Alexamenos graffito is considered one of the earliest known depictions of Jesus, dating back to the 2nd or 3rd century. It is significant because it shows a crude drawing of a figure on a cross with a donkey's head, accompanied by the inscription 'Alexamenos worships [his] god,' likely intended as an insult by pagans.

What was the purpose of the 'cruciform halo' in early Christian art?

The cruciform halo, which features a cross within the halo, was used to specifically identify Jesus Christ in early Christian art. It served as a visual marker to distinguish him from other figures, such as saints or the Virgin Mary, who typically had plain halos.

What theological debate influenced the early depictions of Jesus regarding his physical appearance?

Early theological debates centered on whether Jesus should be depicted with the idealized beauty of a classical hero or with an unremarkable appearance, as suggested by Isaiah 53:2. Figures like Origen, Justin Martyr, and Tertullian engaged with these ideas, while later thinkers like Augustine argued for Jesus's ideal beauty.

How did the depiction of Jesus as a 'wonder worker' or magician emerge in some early Christian art?

Some early Christian art, particularly from the 4th century onwards, depicted Jesus using a wand to perform miracles, such as changing water into wine or raising Lazarus. This imagery, seen on works like the doors of Santa Sabina, has led some scholars to suggest that Jesus was perceived by some early Christians as a magic user or wonder worker.

What is the historical context behind the emergence of the bearded Jesus image, and what influences are suggested?

The bearded Jesus image, which became more common from the late 3rd century, is suggested to have drawn influences from Imperial imagery, the classical philosopher type, and figures like Zeus or Jupiter. Art historian Paul Zanker notes this depiction was associated with 'Charismatic' philosophers known for performing miracles.

What role did the 'Image of Edessa' play in the development of Jesus's iconography?

The 'Image of Edessa,' also known as the Mandylion, is an early tradition of an image of Jesus's face imprinted on a cloth. Replicas of this 'image not made by human hands' (acheiropoieta) circulated widely and are believed by some to have influenced the standardization of Jesus's appearance in later icons.

How did the emphasis on Jesus's humility, particularly by the Franciscans, change his artistic portrayal?

Starting in the 13th century, the Franciscans emphasized Jesus's humility, focusing on his nativity and crucifixion. This shift moved away from portraying Jesus as a powerful 'Kyrios' (Lord) towards a more relatable and suffering figure, introducing a broader emotional range into his depictions.

What is the significance of Warner Sallman's 'Head of Christ' painting?

Warner Sallman's 'Head of Christ,' created after a purported vision in 1924, became an exceptionally successful work of popular devotional art. It was reproduced over half a billion times worldwide by the end of the 20th century and is venerated in various Christian traditions, including the Coptic Orthodox Church.

What is the 'Divine Mercy image,' and what is its origin?

The 'Divine Mercy image' is a popular 20th-century depiction of Jesus, approved by Pope John Paul II. It is based on a vision reportedly experienced by Saint Faustina Kowalska in 1931, where Jesus appeared asking her to paint an image according to the pattern she saw, featuring rays of red and white emanating from his heart.

How did the portrayal of Jesus in art reflect local ethnic characteristics in different regions?

In various regions, including Egypt (Coptic Church), Ethiopia, China, and Central Asia, depictions of Jesus often incorporated the ethnic features of the local population. This reflects a tendency for religious imagery to adapt and resonate with the cultural identity of the viewers.

Depiction Of Jesus Wiki: Visualizing the Divine: A Historical Exploration of Jesus' Depictions

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Early Christian Art

Aniconism and Early Art

The depiction of Jesus in pictorial form began in early Christian art, emerging from a period where aniconism (the avoidance of religious images) was prevalent within the early Christian community. Initially, many early Christians, influenced by Jewish traditions, viewed the creation of images, particularly of divine figures, with suspicion, citing prohibitions against graven images. This led to early Christian art being often furtive and symbolic.

Symbolic Representations

Before a standardized human likeness emerged, Jesus was frequently represented through symbolic pictograms. Common symbols included the Ichthys (fish), the peacock, or the anchor. The staurogram, a cross-like symbol, also served as an early representation within sacred texts. Other symbolic figures like Jonah, Daniel in the lion's den, or Orpheus were used, with the "Good Shepherd" figure, a beardless youth, being particularly common and likely not initially understood as a direct portrait of Jesus.

First Direct Depictions

Among the earliest surviving images clearly intended to represent Jesus himself are those showing him as a baby, often in the context of the Adoration of the Magi. These are seen as the first displays of the incarnate Christ to the wider world. The oldest known portrait, dating to around 235 AD from Syria, depicts Jesus as a beardless young man with authoritative bearing, short-cropped hair, and wearing a tunic and pallium, reflecting the common Greco-Roman male attire of the period.

Pre-Constantinian Era

Furtive and Ambiguous Art

During the periods of Christian persecution under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily discreet. Early figures like Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Eusebius expressed reservations about the portrayal of Jesus in images. The Synod of Elvira in 306 AD, in its 36th canon, decreed that "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration," a decree later interpreted by Protestants as an interdiction against images of Christ.

Catacomb Art

The earliest surviving Christian art originates from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries, found adorning the walls of tombs in the catacombs of Rome. These works, likely commissioned by affluent Christians, often featured symbolic representations. Literary evidence suggests that panel icons, similar to classical paintings, may have existed but have not survived. These catacomb frescoes provide crucial insights into early Christian visual culture.

Dura-Europos Synagogue

The Dura-Europos synagogue, dating from around 240 AD, provides some of the earliest known examples of Jewish figure art. Its interior frescos depict numerous scenes from the Hebrew Bible. This discovery is significant as it indicates a shift in attitudes towards figurative art within some Jewish communities during Jesus' lifetime and the subsequent decades, challenging earlier assumptions about strict adherence to aniconism.

Post-Constantinian Developments

Imperial Influence and Christ the King

Following the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which legalized Christianity, and the subsequent imperial favor, Christian art experienced a transformation. New imagery emerged, portraying Christ as "Christ the King," often adopting the costume and poses of imperial iconography. This shift is seen by some scholars as reflecting theological developments, particularly the transfer of the title "Pantocrator" (Ruler of All) from God the Father to Christ.

Emergence of the Conventional Image

By the 6th century, a standardized depiction of Jesus—bearded with long hair and a cruciform halo—became established in Eastern Christianity and gradually in the West. This image, easily recognizable, drew inspiration from various sources, including classical philosophers and imperial imagery. While earlier depictions were more varied, this conventional form has remained largely stable, distinguishing Jesus from other figures.

Theological Implications of Appearance

The appearance of Jesus in art carried theological weight. While some early Christians favored a beautiful, classical hero-like appearance, others, like Justin Martyr and Tertullian, believed Jesus' appearance was unremarkable, citing Isaiah 53:2. Conversely, figures like Origen and later thinkers such as Jerome and Augustine argued for Christ's ideal beauty, reflecting evolving theological interpretations of his divine and human nature.

Standardized Forms

Narrative Scenes

Narrative depictions of Jesus' life became increasingly focused on major feasts and the events of the Passion. Key scenes include the Nativity, Baptism, Crucifixion, and Last Judgment. The raising of Lazarus, with its distinct visual signature of a mummy-like figure, remained a prominent miracle depicted. The cruciform halo became a unique identifier for Jesus, distinguishing him from saints who bore plain halos.

Devotional Images

Beyond narrative scenes, devotional images served to aid the faith of the viewers. Common forms include the Madonna and Child, Christ in Majesty, Christ Pantocrator, Sacred Heart, Pietà (Mary holding the dead body of Jesus), the Lamb of God, Man of Sorrows, and Pensive Christ. These images aimed to evoke specific spiritual responses and foster a personal connection with the divine.

Artistic Styles and Meaning

Artistic styles varied between Western and Eastern traditions. While Western art increasingly pursued realism, Eastern icons prioritized spiritual meaning, often disregarding conventional perspective. This approach aimed to convey a transcendent reality beyond earthly representation. The development of these distinct styles reflects differing theological emphases and artistic philosophies.

Range of Depictions

Cultural Variations

Local traditions have significantly influenced the depiction of Jesus, often reflecting the racial characteristics of the local population. Coptic and Ethiopian churches, for instance, present Jesus with distinct regional features. Similarly, traditions in China and Central Asia depict Jesus in ways that align with the appearance of their own people, demonstrating the adaptability of religious imagery across diverse cultures.

Modern Interpretations

Modern scholarship, employing forensic anthropology and CGI, has offered speculative reconstructions of Jesus' appearance. These studies suggest a darker, more olive-toned complexion, broader facial features, and shorter, curly hair, differing from traditional Western portrayals. Such interpretations highlight the historical context of Jesus as a Galilean Semite and challenge long-held artistic conventions.

Miraculous Images

Certain images are traditionally believed to be divinely originated or to possess miraculous qualities. These include the Image of Edessa (Mandylion), the Veil of Veronica, and the Shroud of Turin. More recent devotions, like the Divine Mercy image and Warner Sallman's "Head of Christ," have also gained widespread veneration, demonstrating the enduring power of specific visual representations in fostering faith.

Artistic Examples

Early and Byzantine Art

Jesus as Sol Invictus: A 3rd-century mosaic from the Tomb of the Julii under St. Peter's Basilica, depicting Jesus associated with the sun god Sol Invictus.

Syriac and Eastern Traditions

Syriac Miniature: A 6th-century gospel book illustration showing Christ holding the Gospel of John, characteristic of Syriac art.

Imperial and Medieval Depictions

Byzantine Coin: An early 8th-century coin featuring Jesus, reflecting the post-iconoclasm standardization of imagery on currency.

Asian and European Art

Manichaean Temple Banner: A 10th-century Chinese scroll depicting Jesus as a Manichaean prophet, illustrating cross-cultural artistic synthesis.

Renaissance and Baroque Masters

Piero della Francesca's Baptism: A c. 1448-1450 depiction of the Baptism of Jesus, showcasing Renaissance artistry.

Devotional and Modern Art

Warner Sallman's Head of Christ: A highly reproduced 20th-century image, venerated in the Coptic Orthodox Church.

Sculptural Representations

Global Icons

Christ the Redeemer: The iconic statue in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a globally recognized symbol of faith.

Iberian and Latin American Art

Cristo de la Concordia: Located in Bolivia, this statue is claimed to be the largest statue of Jesus ever made.

Renaissance Sculpture

Michelangelo's Pietà: A 1498-99 masterpiece depicting Mary holding the dead body of Jesus, renowned for its emotional depth and technical skill.

Neoclassical Sculpture

Thorvaldsen's Christus: Located in Copenhagen, Denmark, this statue is a significant work of neoclassical religious art.

Cultural Depictions

Cristo Negro: Found in Portobelo, Panama, this statue represents a unique cultural interpretation of Jesus.

European Folk Art

Suffering Christ Sculpture: A 16th-century sculpture from Cheb, Czechia, reflecting a tradition of depicting Christ's suffering.

Miraculous Images

Ancient Traditions

The Image of Edessa (Mandylion) and the Veil of Veronica are ancient images traditionally believed to be non-humanly made, influencing later depictions and devotions.

Shroud of Turin

The Shroud of Turin, dating back to the 14th century, is a controversial artifact revered by many Christians, believed by some to bear the imprint of Jesus' Holy Face.

Divine Mercy and Head of Christ

Modern devotions like the Divine Mercy image and Sallman's "Head of Christ" are widely venerated, stemming from reported visions and artistic interpretations that have gained significant spiritual following.

Scholarly Notes

Early Church Views

Early Church figures like Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria had varying views on images, with some expressing disapproval, while the Synod of Elvira issued a canon against images in churches.

Interpretations of Appearance

Scholars debate the theological implications of Jesus' appearance, with early figures like Justin Martyr suggesting an unremarkable look, contrasting with later arguments for ideal beauty by Jerome and Augustine.

Artistic Influences

The development of Jesus' depiction drew from classical art, imperial iconography, and philosophical types, with distinct stylistic trends emerging in Eastern and Western traditions.

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References

Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF

Synod of Elvira, 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36

Robin M. Jensen, The Cross: History, Art, and Controversy, Harvard University Press, USA, 2017, p. 185

Cameron J. Anderson, The Faithful Artist: A Vision for Evangelicalism and the Arts, InterVarsity Press, USA, 2016, p. 124

Luke 8:43â44

Harold W. Attridge, Gohei Hata, et al. Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism. Wayne, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1992. pp. 283â284.

Hellemo, pp. 3â6, and Cartlidge and Elliott, 61 (Eusebius quotation) and passim. Clement approved the use of symbolic pictograms.

The Second Church: Popular Christianity A.D. 200â400 by Ramsay MacMullen, The Society of Biblical Literature, 2009

Orpheus as a symbol for David was already found in hellenized Jewish art. Hall, 66

Cartlidge and Elliott, 53â55. See also The Two Faces of Jesus by Robin M. Jensen, Bible Review, 17.8, October 2002, and Understanding Early Christian Art by Robin M. Jensen, Routledge, 2000

Cartlidge and Elliott, 53 â this is Psalm 44 in the Latin Vulgate; English bible translations prefer "glory" and "majesty"

Painted over 40 times in the catacombs of Rome, from the early 3rd century on, and also on sarcophagii. As with the Baptism, some early examples are from Gaul. Schiller, I, 181

Syndicus, 92â93, Catacomb images

Syndicus, 92â97, though images of Christ the King are found in the previous century also â Hellemo, 6

Zanker, 299. Zanker has a full account of the development of the image of Christ at pp. 289â307.

The Shroud of Christ ("Constantinople") by Paul Vignon, Paul Tice, op. cit.

Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper: a Cosmic Drama and an Act of Redemption by Michael Ladwein 2006 pp. 27, 60

William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud:An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983

William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud: An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983

A full list of references for this article are available at the Depiction of Jesus Wikipedia page

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Visualizing the Divine

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Early Christian Art ✝️

🚫 Aniconism and Early Art

🐟 Symbolic Representations

👶 First Direct Depictions

Pre-Constantinian Era ⏳

🤫 Furtive and Ambiguous Art

🏛️ Catacomb Art

🕍 Dura-Europos Synagogue

Post-Constantinian Developments 👑

🏛️ Imperial Influence and Christ the King

🧔 Emergence of the Conventional Image

✨ Theological Implications of Appearance

Standardized Forms 📜

📖 Narrative Scenes

🙏 Devotional Images

🎨 Artistic Styles and Meaning

Range of Depictions 🌍

🌍 Cultural Variations

🔬 Modern Interpretations

✨ Miraculous Images

Artistic Examples 🖼️

🏛️ Early and Byzantine Art

📜 Syriac and Eastern Traditions

👑 Imperial and Medieval Depictions

🌏 Asian and European Art

🎨 Renaissance and Baroque Masters

🙏 Devotional and Modern Art

Sculptural Representations 🗿

🌎 Global Icons

🇪🇸 Iberian and Latin American Art

🇮🇹 Renaissance Sculpture

🇩🇰 Neoclassical Sculpture

🇵🇦 Cultural Depictions

🇨🇿 European Folk Art

Related Topics 🔗

👀 Visual Identity

🖼️ Artistic Categories

🕊️ Symbolic Meanings

🙏 Devotional Practices

⚔️ Historical Context

Miraculous Images 🌟

📜 Ancient Traditions

🧣 Shroud of Turin

💖 Divine Mercy and Head of Christ

Scholarly Notes 🔬

🧐 Early Church Views

🤔 Interpretations of Appearance

🏺 Artistic Influences

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Early Christian Art

Aniconism and Early Art

Symbolic Representations

First Direct Depictions

Pre-Constantinian Era

Furtive and Ambiguous Art

Catacomb Art

Dura-Europos Synagogue

Post-Constantinian Developments

Imperial Influence and Christ the King

Emergence of the Conventional Image

Theological Implications of Appearance

Standardized Forms

Narrative Scenes

Devotional Images

Artistic Styles and Meaning

Range of Depictions

Cultural Variations

Modern Interpretations

Miraculous Images

Artistic Examples

Early and Byzantine Art

Syriac and Eastern Traditions

Imperial and Medieval Depictions

Asian and European Art

Renaissance and Baroque Masters

Devotional and Modern Art

Sculptural Representations

Global Icons

Iberian and Latin American Art

Renaissance Sculpture

Neoclassical Sculpture

Cultural Depictions

European Folk Art

Related Topics

Visual Identity

Artistic Categories

Symbolic Meanings

Devotional Practices

Historical Context

Miraculous Images

Ancient Traditions

Shroud of Turin

Divine Mercy and Head of Christ

Scholarly Notes

Early Church Views

Interpretations of Appearance

Artistic Influences

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

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Gamer's Corner

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References

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Disclaimer

Important Notice